At Cumae, a Greek settlement close to Naples, Italy, the priestess in charge of the Apollonian oracle was known as the Cumaean Sibyl. The ancient Greek word Sibylla, which implies prophetess, is whence the word sibyl originates. Throughout antiquity, sibyls were prevalent. Due to her close proximity to Rome and her significance in the early Roman traditions preserved in Aeneid VI of Virgil, the Cumaean Sibyl rose to prominence among the Roman populace. Greek mythology associated the Erythraean Sibyl with modern-day Turkey, and the Sibyl of Dodona, the oldest known Greek oracle, with Herodotus dating her to the second millennium BC, with eastern favor. One of four sibyl paintings by Raphael in Santa Maria della Pace is the Cumaean Sibyl. Andrea del Castagno portrayed her as well. In Sistine Ceiling of Michelangelo , her strong presence dwarfs that of all the other sibyls, including the younger and more attractive sisters like the Delphic Sibyl
[Information and Image Credit : Cumaean_Sibyl , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumaean_Sibyl ]
[Image : Cumaean Sibyl by Andrea del Castagno (1420–1457)]
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#Mythology
Located in Alcántara, Extremadura, Spain, the Alcántara Bridge is a Roman bridge. The Roman emperor Trajan issued an order in 98 AD to construct the stone arch bridge across the Tagus River between 104 and 106 AD. Over the years, fighting has caused more damage to the Alcántara Bridge than environmental factors. One of the tiniest arches was demolished in 1214, but it was reconstructed using stone from the original quarries centuries later, in 1543. Charles III rebuilt the second arch on the northwest side in 1762 after it had been destroyed in 1760, but it was demolished once more in 1809. Although some bridge repairs were performed temporarily in 1819, the bridge was severely damaged once more in 1836. 1860 saw the reconstruction of the bridge using mortared brickwork. And in 1969, the main pillars were fully restored after the José María de Oriol Dam was finished, allowing the Tagus riverbed to be drained. The province of Lusitania was an old Roman province where the bridge was built. Known as opus pontis, or bridge labor, the expenses of constructing and maintaining bridges fell under the purview of several local towns in ancient Rome. Their shared expenses demonstrate that Roman bridges belonged to the area as a whole, not just to a particular town. The cost of constructing the Alcántara Bridge in Portugal was borne by twelve local communities. The inscription on the arches over the center pier was updated with their names
[Information and Image Credit : Alcántara_Bridge, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alc%C3%A1ntara_Bridge ]
[Image : Alcántara_Bridge; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Alonso de Mendoza]
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#Castles#History#Architecture
Personifications of liberty have often been used, primarily depicting it as an essentially feminine classical goddess. Marianne, the national symbol of the French Republic and its ideals of Liberté, Égalité and Fraternité, the woman Liberty seen on US coins for more than a century, are just a few examples. These are descended from numerous innovations from the Renaissance forward, as well as from depictions of the Roman goddess Libertas on old Roman coinage. The Dutch Maiden was one of the first to reintroduce the liberty cap on a liberty pole, which is now seen in many different kinds of images, albeit without the Phrygian cap style that later became common. One of the most well-known pieces of art is the 1886 Statue of Liberty, also known as Liberty Enlightening the World, which was given as a gift from France to the United States. During the Second Punic War, father of Tiberius Gracchus built a temple dedicated to the ancient Roman goddess Libertas atop Aventine Hill of Rome. In a very symbolic act, Publius Clodius Pulcher erected a shrine dedicated to her on the site of the destroyed home of Marcus Tullius Cicero in 58 BC. When she is portrayed as a standing person on the back of coins, she typically holds out but never dons a pileus, the soft cap that represented releasing former slaves from slavery. In addition, she is carrying a rod, which was a component of the manumission ritual. Because antiquarians misinterpreted its shape in the 18th century, the pileus evolved into the Phrygian cap akin to the one English-speaking Liberty figures carried atop a pole. This cap later became known as the Cap of Liberty and was worn by Marianne and other 19th-century personifications. Libertas had been a key concept in the Roman Republic and was uneasily appropriated by the empire; it was understood as a privilege accorded to some people by Roman law rather than as an inherent right. Her pileus attribute first appeared between two daggers bearing the words EID MAR on the Ides of March coin of the assassins of Julius Caesar, who were the defenders of the Roman republic
[Information and Image Credit : Liberty_(personification) ; Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberty_(personification) ]
[Image : La liberté, Nanine Vallain, 1794; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Tylwyth Eldar]
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#History
The mother goddess of Anatolia, Cybele, may have had an early Neolithic ancestor in Çatalhöyük. She was likely the national divinity of Phrygia and is the only goddess known to exist there. There is no extant tale or literature that describes the original nature or characteristics of the Phrygian cult of Cybele. She might have developed from a kind of statuary from Anatolia called Çatalhöyük, which dates to the sixth millennium BC and is thought by some to be a mother goddess. It depicts a corpulent, fertile female figure surrounded by big cats. The cult features of the Phrygian mother-goddess, seen in 8th-century BC Phrygian art, include attendant lions, a prey-bird and a little vase for her offerings or libations. Around the sixth century BC, Greek colonists in Asia Minor took up and modified her Phrygian cult, which they then brought to mainland Greece and the farther-flung western Greek colonies. Cybele had a mixed response when she arrived in Greece. She began to adopt characteristics of the harvest-mother goddess Demeter, the Earth-goddess Gaia, and her potential Minoan counterpart Rhea. Her most famous Greek ceremonies and processions portray her as an inherently alien, exotic mystery-goddess who arrives in a lion-drawn chariot to the accompaniment of wild music, wine, and an agitated, ecstatic following. However, some city-states, most notably Athens, invoked her as a protector. She held a eunuch mendicant priesthood, which was unique in Greek religion. Rituals to a divine Phrygian castrate shepherd-consort Attis, who was most likely a Greek fabrication, were part of many of her Greek religions. In Greece, Cybele came to be connected to mountains, city walls, lush surroundings, and untamed animals, particularly lions. Cybele earned the title Magna Mater or Great Mother, in Rome. Once the Sibylline oracle in 205 BC urged her conscription as a crucial religious ally in the second war of Rome against Carthage between 218 and 201 BC, the Roman state adopted and developed a specific form of her cult. Roman mythographers reinterpreted her as a Trojan goddess, and thus an ancestral goddess of the Roman people through the Trojan prince Aeneas. Romanized versions of the cults of Cybele spread throughout empire as Rome eventually consolidated dominance over the Mediterranean region. Greek and Roman writers argued and argued over the morality and significance of her cults and priesthoods, topics that are still contentious in contemporary scholarship
[Information and Image Credit : Cybele, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele ]
[Image : Cybele in a chariot driven by Nike and drawn by lions toward a votive sacrifice (right); above are heavenly symbols including a solar deity, Plaque from Ai Khanoum, Bactria (Afghanistan), 2nd century BC; Gilded silver; Wikipedia-Image-Author : World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims)]
[The copyright holder of the work(Image), released the work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: the copyright holder grants anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law. The work (Image) is also in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer; (Please Relate to Original Image URL for More Usage Property) ] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg ] #History#Art
The Hadrian Mausoleum, sometimes called Castel Sant Angelo, is a soaring rotunda located in Rome, Parco Adriano of Italy. Hadrian, the Roman Emperor, had originally ordered it to be built as a mausoleum for himself and his family. Later on, the popes utilized the structure as a castle and stronghold; it is currently a museum. It used to be the highest building in Rome. Between A.D. 134 and A.D. 139, the Roman emperor Hadrian had his tomb built on the right bank of the Tiber. The tomb was once a garden-topped, golden quadriga-adorned cylinder. A year after death of Hadrian in Baiae in 138, his ashes were interred here, along with those of his first adopted son, Lucius Aelius, who also passed away in 138, and his wife Sabina. After then, the bodies of other emperors were interred here as well; burial of Caracalla in 217 is the final known deposition. The Treasury Room, located deep beneath the structure, is most likely where the urns holding these remains were kept. Hadrian also constructed the Pons Aelius, which faces directly into the mausoleum and is famous for its Baroque additions of sculptures of angels carrying instruments in the air. It still offers a picturesque entrance from both the left bank of the Tiber and the heart of Rome. A large portion of the ornamentation of the tomb and contents have been lost because Flavius Honorius Augustus included the structure in the Aurelian Walls after it was transformed into a military fortification in 401 A.D. According to Procopius, the original beautiful bronze and stone statuary was thrown down upon the attacking Goths when they besieged Rome in 537 A.D. The urns and ashes were scattered by Visigoth robbers during invasion of Rome of Alaric in A.D. 410 [Information and Image Credit : Castel Sant Angelo, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo ] [Image : Mausoleum of Hadrian; Wikipedia-Image-Aithor : 0x010C ;] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ] [Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chateau-saint-ange-tibre.jpg ] #Castles#History
In the play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Queen Mab—the midwife of fairies—is mentioned as a fairy. Later, she makes appearances in other works of poetry and fiction as well as in drama and film under various guises. In the play, she is a tiny creature who plays nighttime pranks on sleeping people, as described in a famous monologue by Mercutio that was originally written in prose and frequently modified into iambic pentameter. She rides her chariot over their noses while being propelled by a team of atoms, bringing the imaginations of sleeping men. She is also referred to as a midwife who assists those who are sleeping in giving birth to their dreams. She has generally been represented in later works as the Fairy Queen. Shakespeare may have taken the name Mab from tradition, but this is debatable and there are many hypotheses as to where it came from. According to a well-liked hypothesis, Mab is descended from Medb, a legendary queen from Irish poetry from the 12th century. The little dream-bringer Mab, however, stands in stark contrast to the powerful warrior Medb. Other writers, like Wirt Sikes, asserted that Mab is derived from the Welsh word mab, which means son or child, although detractors criticized this claim for lacking evidence. A link to Habundia, also known as Dame Habonde, a goddess occasionally referred to as a queen in medieval times and associated with witches, is also postulated
[Information Credit : Queen_Mab, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Mab ]
[Image : Queen Mab, illustration by Arthur Rackham (1906)]
[The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 70 years or fewer. The work (Image) is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1928. (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:110_Queen_Mab,_who_rules_in_the_Gardens.jpg ]
#Mythology
Syrian Queen Septimia Zenobia ruled the Palmyrene Empire in the third century A.D. Her ancestry is shrouded in many traditions; she was likely not a commoner and she wed Odaenathus, the lord of the city. In 260 A.D. , when her husband became king, he led Palmyra to the top of the Near Eastern power structure by defeating the Sasanian Empire of Persia and establishing stability in the Roman East. Following the murder of Odaenathus, Zenobia assumed de facto control over her son Vaballathus and served as his regent. Invasion by Zenobia in 270 resulted in the conquest of Egypt and the subjugation of the majority of the Roman East. Although she continued to be formally subordinate to Rome, by the middle of 271 her domain had spread from Ancyra in central Anatolia to Upper Egypt. However, Zenobia proclaimed her son emperor and adopted the title of empress in response to the campaign of the Roman emperor Aurelian in 272, signaling separation of Palmyra from Rome. After fierce combat, the Romans triumphed; the empress was besieged in her city and taken prisoner by Aurelian, who banished her to Rome where she lived out the rest of her days. Being a learned ruler, Zenobia cultivated an intellectual atmosphere in her court that was welcoming to academics and philosophers. She was kind to her people and stood out for religious minorities. The empress oversaw a multiracial, multiethnic empire with a reliable government. After her death in 274, the destiny of Zenobia was the subject of numerous stories. She is a national figure in Syria, and her ascent and fall have served as an inspiration to historians, painters, and novelists [Information and Image Credit : Zenobia, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia ] [Wikipedia-Image-Author : Henri Seyrig;] [Image : Lead token naming Zenobia as queen c. 268] [Image : The work(Image) is in the public domain because it was published in the United States between 1928 and 1963, and although there may or may not have been a copyright notice, the copyright was not renewed. ] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zenobia_lead_token.png ] #History
In ancient Dura Europos, a city on the Euphrates in modern-day Syria, the Temple of Bel, also known as the Temple of the Palmyrene gods, was situated. The temple, which dates back to the first century BCE, is famous for its wall murals. Despite the current names of the building, it is unclear which deities were worshipped there. The temple was erected in honor of Alexander Severus when Rome was in power. The temple was then situated inside the military barracks of the XXth Palmyrene cohort. Since there is no indication of Palmyrene devotion during the Parthian era when the Temple was founded, Zeus was probably the focus of worship at the time the building was constructed. The holy of holies was situated in the west, the original construction phase comprised of a wide room, to which a vestibule was added in the second building phase, and in front of the holy of holies was a courtyard, surrounded by various rooms, whose function is not yet clear. The temple is situated in the northwest of the city, abutting the city wall. The northern and western walls of the temple are formed by the city wall. At least three construction phases can be distinguished. It is well known that the god Iarhibol was worshiped in the Temple of Bēl at Dura, which served as a hub of religious activity. The impact of the Bel-Marduk religion in Palmyra around 213 BC is where the term Bel, which refers to the god, originates. In pre-Hellenistic days, Bel was revered frequently alongside Iarhibol and Aglibol as a main deity. The Aramean deity Iarhibol was revered in prehistoric Palmyra. Iarhibol has appeared in a number of reliefs, where he is seen standing next to Aglibol to his right and is identified as the sun god, a member of the triad of Bel. Without these deities, Iarhibol is never depicted in busts or reliefs, forming the trinity of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. The paintings from the temple were found in 1920 by M. C. Murphy. James Henry Breasted, who examined the paintings and the temple and published a monograph about them in 1924, was given photos of the paintings. Westerners had never heard of the location before to discovery of Murphy. It was not until much later that it was linked to the ancient settlement of Dura Europos. The discovery of wall murals at the temple aroused curiosity, and The New York Times even covered the discovery
[Information and Image Credit : Temple_of_Bel,_Dura-Europos, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bel,_Dura-Europos ]
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[Wikipedia-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DuraEuropos-TempleOfBel.jpg ]
#History
Roman mystery religion Mithraism, also known as the Mithraic mysteries or the Cult of Mithras, was based on the god Mithras. The Roman Mithras is associated with a new and distinctive imagery, with the degree of continuity between Persian and Greco-Roman practice being disputed, despite being inspired by Iranian worship of the Zoroastrian god (i.e., yazata) Mithra. From around the first through the fourth century CE, the mysteries were a favorite among the Imperial Roman troops. The seven levels of initiation and shared ceremonial meals were part of a complicated system used by Mithras worshippers. Syndexioi, those -- United by the Handshake, was the name given by initiates. They met in one of the several Mithraea, or underground temples, that still exist today. The worship is thought to have originated in Rome and spread throughout the western half of the empire, including Roman Africa and Numidia in the south, Roman Dacia in the east, Roman Britain in the north, and to a lesser extent Roman Syria in the east. Early Christianity is perceived as competing with Mithraism. Christians later persecuted Mithraists throughout the fourth century, and by the end of the century, the religion had been outlawed and suppressed in the Roman Empire. Throughout the Roman Empire, numerous archaeological discoveries, including gathering sites, monuments, and artifacts, have added to our current understanding of Mithraism. The most well-known images of Mithras depict him emerging from a rock or dining with the god Sol, or the Sun. There would have been at least 680 mithraea in Rome, according to estimates. Limited information may be gleaned from the inscriptions and fleeting or passing references in Greek and Latin literature; no written narratives or theology from the religion have survived. The interpretation of the tangible evidence is still up for debate [Information and Image Credit : Mithraism, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraism ] [Image: Mosaic (1st century CE) depicting Mithras emerging from his cave and flanked by Cautes and Cautopates (Walters Art Museum)] [Image : The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Walters Art Museum. Walters Art Museum grants anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law] [Wikipedia-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg ] #History
The Irish Wolfhound is one of the biggest dog breeds and is a giant sighthound. G.A. Graham created it in the late 19th century with the intention of resurrecting the old Irish wolfhounds, which were thought to be extinct. These were utilised as guard dogs and for wolf hunting, and their appearance and impressive size served as inspiration for literature, poetry, and mythology. Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman Consul who received seven Canes Scotici as a gift to be used for hunting lions and bears, made mention to giant dogs in 391 AD when he wrote, that all of Rome viewed them with wonder. A Latin term for the Gaels or early Irish is Scoti. In Irish laws and literature from the sixth century, or, in the case of the Sagas, from the ancient Irish period, AD 600-900, dogs are referred to as Cú. The term Cú was frequently used as an epithet for both kings and soldiers to indicate that they were deserving of the adoration and devotion of a dog. The fabled warrior Cú Chulainn, whose name translates to Hound of Culann, is thought to have acquired this moniker as a youngster after killing vicious guard dog of Culann . He offered himself as a replacement as compensation. The Irish zoo-archaeologist Finbar McCormick however emphasised that no dogs of Irish Wolfhound size are known from sites of the Iron Age period of 1000 BC through to 1200 AD in his discussion of the systematic evidence of historic dog sizes in Ireland. Based on the historical dog bones available, it appears that dogs of the current Irish Wolfhound size are a relatively recent development. Hunting dogs were prized, and wealthy people and foreign aristocrats frequently received them as gifts. In or around 1210 A.D., King John of England gave Llywelyn, the Prince of Wales, an Irish dog by the name of Gelert. This hound was written about in a poem by the poet The Hon. William Robert Spencer. Edmund Campion provides an account of the hounds used to hunt wolves in the Dublin and Wicklow mountains in his Historie of Ireland, which was finished in 1571. The Irish Wolfhound was mentioned in the eighteenth century, and references to it describe its tremendous size, power, and greyhound-like appearance as well as its rarity. Bewick identified it as the largest and most attractive breed of dog in his writings from 1790. It stands approximately thirty-six inches tall, is often white or cinnamon in colour, and resembles the Greyhound but is more robust. He claimed that because of their power and gentle demeanour, they were vastly superior than the Mastiff or Bulldog in battle!
[Information and Image Credit : Irish_Wolfhound, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Wolfhound ]
[Image : Irish Greyhound in a mountainous landscape (1804), Philip Reinagle ]
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The history of visual art in Europe is included in what is known as Western art, or art of Europe. Between the Palaeolithic and the Iron Age, mobile Upper Palaeolithic rock and cave painting and petroglyph art were the origins of European prehistoric art. Often, written accounts of European art start with the 3rd millennium BCE Aegean civilizations. The Ancient Greek art, which Rome inherited and modified before spreading it throughout most of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia with the Roman Empire, does, however, reveal a constant trend of aesthetic evolution within Europe. Over the course of the next two thousand years, the influence of the art of the Classical period fluctuated, appearing to fade into obscurity in some areas of the Mediaeval period, reappearing in the Renaissance, experiencing a period of what some early art historians perceived as -- Decay -- during the Baroque period, reappearing in a more refined form in Neo-Classicism, and then resurfacing in Post-Modernism. Several stylistic periods that historically overlapped each other as various styles developed in various regions are used to categorise European art. Classical, Byzantine, Mediaeval, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical, Modern, Postmodern, and New European Painting are the major historical periods
[Information and Image Credit : Art_of_Europe , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Europe ]
[Image : Apelles painting Campaspe, an artwork which shows people surrounded by fine art; by Willem van Haecht; c. 1630; oil on panel; height: 104.9 cm, width: 148.7 cm; Mauritshuis (The Hague, the Netherlands) ]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer. The photographic reproduction is also considered to be in the public domain in the United States (Kindly Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia Source Image URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Willem_van_Haecht_(II)_-_Apelles_painting_Campaspe_-_2.jpg ] #Art
A Middle English romance from the thirteenth century, Havelok the Dane—also known as Havelok or Lay of Havelok the Dane—is regarded as a component of the Matter of England. However, the tale has also been published in two earlier Anglo-Norman forms. Lines 37-818 of Anglo-Norman Estoire des Engleis by Geoffrey Gaimar, written in 1135–1140 A.D., first tell the tale of Havelok. After King Horn, Havelok is the second-oldest extant romance in English; it is thought to have been written between 1285 and 1310. The Bodleian Library at Oxford University has a single incomplete copy of the romance as well as several remnants. The Grimsby Public Library has a copy of the 3,001-line poem that is accessible for viewing. The Lay of Havelock the Dane, a new edition of late-19th-century translation of Walter Skeat, is now available. Due to the fact that Havelok deals with historical tales about England rather than the three typical subjects of mediaeval romance—Rome, France, and Britain—it is frequently referred to as falling within the umbrella of the so-called Matter of England. The poem is noteworthy for its dedication in law and the practice of the law, its investigation of the concept of kingship, and its in-depth portrayal of working-class life in 13th-century Lincolnshire. It has been referred to as a bourgeois romance because of the emphasis on virtue, hard labour, and fabled wisdom, but the phrase can be deceptive because these virtues are just as evident in working-class life. There is proof that the Havelok legend was well-known since, in the early thirteenth century, the town of Grimsby, which is mentioned in the tale, included three of its characters on its town seal: Havelok, Goldeboru, and Grim. By combining early English, Norman, Danish, and British influences, the tale ties local interest in the establishment of Grimsby in Lincolnshire to an interest in the complicated national identity of England in the Middle Ages. The town seal of Grimsby still features the names Grim, Havelok, and Goldborow [Information and Image Credit : Havelok_the_Dane, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havelok_the_Dane ] [Image: Grim the fisherman and his wife can be seen in a 1905 illustration seeing Havelok shining while he sleeps] [The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 70 years or fewer. The work (Image) is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well. (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Havelok_is_discovered.png ]
Aristotle established the Peripatetic School, a philosophical institution, in the Lyceum of Classical Athens in 335 BC. Members of this unofficial organisation engaged in philosophical and scientific research. The school started to collapse about the middle of the third century BC, and it was not until the Roman era that it began to flourish again. The word Peripatetic is a transliteration of the ancient Greek word περιπατητικός which means -- Of Walking or Given to Walking About. The Peripatetic school was originally referred to as the Peripatos. Because of the peripatoi, or Walkways, of the Lyceum, where the members congregated, the school so acquired its name. Aristotle, unlike Plato, was not an Athens resident and was consequently unable to hold land; as a result, he and his associates met on the Lyceum grounds, much as earlier philosophers like Socrates had done. The school also started to be recognized to as the Lyceum because of its connection to the gymnasium. The Peripatetic assemblies were presumably run less formally in the beginning than the term School implies; there was presumably no established curriculum, requirements for pupils, or even membership fees. Aristotle did give lectures and classes there, but he also collaborated with other students on philosophical and scientific research. A lot of the works that have survived in name of Aristotle appear to be based on the lectures he delivered at the university. The goal of the school, at least in his days, was to examine philosophical and scientific hypotheses rather than advance any particular belief; those in charge of the school collaborated on an equal basis. Aristotle left Athens perhaps soon after the passing of Alexander the Great in June 323 BC to avoid persecution by anti-Macedonian forces in Athens because of his connections to Macedonia. Theophrastus succeeded Aristotle as head of the school after his passing in 322 BC. Strato of Lampsacus, who emphasised the naturalistic components of philosophy of Aristotle and embraced a sort of atheism, was the most notable member of the school after Theophrastus. The Peripatetic school experienced a downturn following Strato. All the philosophical schools of Athens suffered severe disruptions during the siege of the city in 86 BC by Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the Lyceum ceased to be a functioning organisation. Strangely, it seems as though this incident has given the Peripatetic school fresh life. The writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus were carried back to Rome by Sulla, where they served as the foundation for a new compilation of works of Aristotle put together by Andronicus of Rhodes, which is what is now known as the Corpus Aristotelicum.
[Information and Image Credit : Peripatetic_school, Wikipedia;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school ]
[Image: Aristotles School, a painting from the 1880s by Gustav Adolph Spangenberg]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The work is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL :
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Early eighteenth-century Irish portrait painter, translator, and art collector Charles Jervas lived between 1675 and 2 November 1739. Around 1675, John Jervas, son of Elizabeth, daughter of Captain John Baldwin of Shinrone Castle & Corolanty, High Sheriff of County Offaly, was born in Shinrone, County Offaly, Ireland. Between 1694 and 1695, Jervas worked as a working assistant for Sir Godfrey Kneller in London, England. Following the sale of several miniature copies of the Raphael Cartoons to Dr. George Clarke of All Souls College in Oxford in around 1698, he moved to Paris and Rome the following year, staying there for the majority of the following ten years before coming back to London in 1709 and getting good results as a portrait painter. Charles Jervas became a well-known artist who was frequently mentioned in the works of literary figures of the time by painting portraits of the intelligentsia of the city, including personal friends like Jonathan Swift and the poet Alexander Pope. Jervas succeeded Kneller as the Chief Painter in Ordinary to King George I in 1723 and later to King George II as a result of his expanding renown. He relocated to Hampton, London, after getting married to Penelope Hume, a wealthy widow who was rumoured to be worth £20,000. Up until his passing in 1739, he remained a resident of London. Jervas was the first to offer an introduction to the book, which also included a review of earlier translations of Don Quixote. Even though it was printed numerous times throughout the nineteenth century, it has received both great praise for being the most accurate translation of the book to that point and harsh criticism for being stilted and humourless [Information and Image Credit : Charles_Jervas, Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Jervas ] [image: Self-portrait of Jervas] [The Image (Work) a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The (Image) Work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Work is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well. (Kindly Relate to Individual Source Image URLs for More Usage Properties)] [Wikipedia-Source Image URL :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Jervas.jpg ] #Art
The Kushan Empire was ruled by Vima Kadphises from roughly 113 to 127 CE. He was the father of Kanishka and the son of Vima Takto, in accordance with the Rabatak inscription. The Rabatak inscription, written by Kanishka, describes the relationship between Vima Kadphises and subsequent Kushan emperors. Kanishka adds himself to the litany of kings who ruled before him, including Kujula Kadphises, his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu, his grandpa, and Vima Kadphises, his father. The majority of the coins of Vima include Hindu depictions of Shiva, either with or without his bull. Shiva is frequently shown with a Trishul or Trident. He was the first Kushan emperor to add gold coins to the already-existing copper and silver ones. The majority of the gold appears to have come from commerce with the Roman Empire. Roman coins from the first century equate to the standard gold weight of about eight grammes. Gold bullion of Rome would be melted down and used to create the double stater, stater, and quarter starting or dinara coins for the Kushan mints. Being the hub of trade between the Han Dynasty of China, Central Asia, and Alexandria and Antioch in the West, the Kushan Empire enjoyed prosperity from the time of Vima onwards, as evidenced by the use of gold. The Silk Road was preserved and guarded by the Kushan, allowing trade in silk, spices, and textiles between China, India, and the West. In particular, a lot of products were transported to the Roman Empire via ships, resulting in a flow of Greek wine and gold coinage. As evidenced by the diversity and high calibre of the artefacts discovered in Bagram, Afghanistan, the Kushan summer capital, works of art were also imported from all corners. The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara demonstrates how strongly artistic syncretism was encouraged. [Information and Image Credit : Vima_Kadphises , Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vima_Kadphises ] [Image :: Vima Kadphises with Ithyphallic Shiva ; Wikipedia Image-Attribution : Classical Numismatic Group, Inc http://www.cngcoins.com/ ] [Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported ; (Kindly Relate to Individual Source Image URLs for More Usage Properties)] [Image-License-Link :: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en [Wikipedia-Source Image URL :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vima_Kadphises_with_ithyphallic_Shiva.jpg ]
The Floralia was a celebration held in old Roman religious tradition on April 27 during the Republican era or April 28 in the Julian calendar in honour of the goddess Flora. The Games of Flora, known as Ludi Florae, were a part of the festival and took place over the course of six days. The ambiance of the festival was one of liberal free delight. The Flora sports were plebeian in spirit, in comparison to many celebrations that had an aristocratic vibe. One of the earliest Roman divinities, Flora had her own flamen Florialis high priest, one of the fifteen gods who each had a state-sponsored high priest. In the holy grove of the Arval Brothers, an ancient priesthood, she accepted sacrifices i.e. piacula as a goddess of flowers, greenery, and fertility. According to tradition, the quasi-legendary Regal era Sabine king Titus Tatius built her altar in Rome. The month Flusalis according to Sabine calendar, which is semantically comparable to Floralia, had Flora among its deities, according to Varro. Following a drought that lasted from 241-238 BCE, the Sibylline Books were consulted at Rome before the Temple of Flora was constructed. The temple was situated close to the Circus Maximus on the lower slope of the Aventine Hill, an area known for being popular with plebeians of Rome. Games were established for the founding day of the temple i.e. April 28), but they were only sporadically held until continued crop loss made them an annual event starting in 173 BCE. Flora Rustica i.e. Rural Flora had a second temple on Quirinal Hill called the Temple of Flora Rustica, which could have been where Tatius had built the altar. According to the Roman poet Ovid, as part of the celebrations, hares and goats—animals regarded as prolific and salacious—were ceremoniously unleashed. According to Persius, the throng was doused with vetches, beans, and lupins, which are also fertility emblems. Contrary to the Cerealia, where white clothing was the norm, multicoloured attire was the norm. Since texts mention actions made to illuminate the path after the theatrical shows, there may have been nighttime celebrations [Information and Image Credit : Floralia, Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link:: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floralia ] [Image: Triumph of Flora by Tiepolo (ca. 1743), a scene based on description of the Floralia by Ovid] [The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer. The work (Image) is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1928. (Please Relate to Source Image-URL for More Image Usage Property and License)] [Wikipedia-Image-Link :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo_090.jpg ] #Mythology
Old Norse literature describes berserkers as people who battled in a trance-like rage; this trait later gave origin to the contemporary English word -Berserk - meaning ferociously violent or uncontrollable. Numerous Old Norse sources mention berserkers. The word was Berserkr in Old Norse, plural Berserkir. It most likely means Bear-Shirt, meaning -- One who wears a Bear-Skin coat, when compared to the Middle English term Serk, meaning Shirt. The term was originally interpreted by historian Snorri Sturluson in the thirteenth century to mean Bare-Shirt, which meant that the warriors engaged in combat without armour. However, this interpretation has since largely been disproved. Some writers argue that hunting sorcery is where the northern warrior culture got its start. The bear, wolf, and wild boar arose as the three principal animal rituals. Scenes from Conquest of Dacia by Trajan in 101–106 AD are depicted in the bas relief carvings on the column of the same name in Rome. His Roman soldiers are seen in the pictures together with auxiliary troops and allies from the frontier areas of Rome, including tribal combatants from both sides of the Rhine. There are warriors affiliated with the Germani who are shown to be barefoot, bare-chested, and carrying weapons and helmets. Some of these soldiers are depicted in Scene 36 of the column standing together, some wearing wolfhoods and others bearhoods. Germanic bear warriors and wolf warriors were never seen fighting alongside one another in history until the account of the Battle of Hafrsfjord in 872 AD by Thórbiörn Hornklofi, when they did so in support of Norwegian King Harald Fairhair. Four cast-bronze dies, known as the Torslunda plates, were discovered in a mound on the grounds of farm No. 5 Björnhovda in Torslunda parish, Land, Sweden, in the spring of 1870, one of them depicting what looks to be a Berserker rite. Some sources assert that the Berserkers were followers of the ancient bear worship, which was once quite popular throughout the northern hemisphere, and that they derived their strength from bears. Notwithstanding their superior fighting skills, the berserkers kept to their religious traditions. The Svarfdaela epic recounts a one on one duel that a berserker delayed until three days after Yule. Before their funeral rites, the deceased bodies of the Berserkers were spread out in bearskins. The bearskin caps that the guards of Danish monarchs wear today still have the bear-warrior image. The berserkers experienced bouts of rage during combat. They would froth at the mouth, howl like untamed animals, and gnaw the rims of their shields. t is said that they were resistant to fire and steel during these outbursts and wreaked havoc among the enemy. They were frail and subdued after the fever subsided. There are accounts about this in the sagas
[Information Credit : Berserker, Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link :
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[Image :
Painting by Nicholas K. Roerich – Sorcerers -- In which Ulfheðnar is shown conducting a ritual (1905) ; The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in Russia according to article 1281 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. The work was originally published before January 1, 1928. The work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1928. (Please Relate to Source Image-URL for More Image Usage Property and License) Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link :
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It was Charles Edward Stuart, who attempted to restore his father James Francis Edward Stuart to the throne of British during the Jacobite Rising of 1745, which also came to be known as the Forty-Five Rebellion. The Uprising took place during the War of the Austrian Succession, when the majority of the British Army was incidentally engaged in combat on the Continental- Europe, and it proved to be the final showdown of the series of uprisings that have started in 1689 and peaked in intensity in the years 1708, 1715, and 1719. At Glenfinnan in the Scottish Highlands on August 19, 1745, Charlesled foundation to the new uprising. He later took possession of Edinburgh and triumphed at the Battle of Prestonpans in September. After Charles had promised the Scots of significant support from the English Jacobites and a simultaneous French arrival in Southern England, the Scots resolved to attack England at a meeting in October. On the basis of this plan, the Jacobite army arrived in England in early November and made their way to Derby on December 4 before deciding to turn around. Similar debates had occurred in Carlisle, Preston, and Manchester, and many believed they had already crossed a line. The invasion path had been chosen to pass through staunchly Jacobite territories, but when the promised English reinforcement did not show up, they found themselves outnumbered and in danger of having their retreat snarled. The majority of people agreed with the choice, but it irreparably divided the Scots allies of Charles. Despite winning at Falkirk Muir in January 1746, the Rebellion and major support for the Stuart cause were put an end at the Battle of Culloden in April. Charles managed to flee to France, but he was unable to secure backing for a second attempt, and he eventually passed away in Rome in 1788. Even though the Jacobite cause persisted after 1746, it was no longer a genuine political cause of concern due to the varied goals of its supporters. Irish Jacobite groups were eventually absorbed into the Society of United Irishmen since they became to express hostility to the status quo rather than love for the Stuarts. After 1745, the general public began to view Highlanders more as members of a noble warrior race who were ethnically and culturally distinct from other Scots. In 1745, Highlanders were now forbidden from serving abroad, and as a deliberate necessary measure, their recruitment into the British Army was increased! [Information Credit : Jacobite_rising_of_1745 , Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745 ] [Image: Artistic Depiction (Derivative Art) of the Rebellion of 1745]
A historic wool wall hanging known as the Sampul tapestry was discovered in the Tarim Basin nearby the ancient kingdom of Khotan. The item is linked to the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom by its numerous Hellenistic period characteristics, which include a Greek centaur and diadem. It might be a Yuezhi soldier from the first century CE, dressed in a crimson jacket and pants. As another possibility, the soldier or monarch, may be a Greco-Bactrian, a Saka who had undergone Hellenization, or a Greco-Saka military nobleman. The complete tapestry is 230 cm long and 48 cm broad. The face portion of the warrior measures 48 by 52 cm and the centaur portion measures 45 by 55 cm. The fabric that was found merely makes up the left ornamental border of a much larger wall hanging. It is made of 24 threads of various colours and is made of wool. A guy with Caucasoid traits, including blue eyes, is shown on the tapestry with a centaur. The soldier would be around six times as tall as the centaur if all missing fabric were taken into account. A spear in his hand and a dagger placed on his belt help to identify the individual as a warrior. He is dressed in a tunic with rosette patterns. His headdress might be a diadem, which was depicted on Macedonian and other ancient Greek currency and served as a sign of kingship in the Hellenistic era. The centaur is performing a horn and is covered in a cloak and cape. He is surrounded with a floral adornment in the form of a diamond. The antiquity of the material is questionable because there has been a lot of theft at the site. Dates ranging from the third century BC to the fourth century AD have been given to it. Even though the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia has been mentioned as a potential location, the exact location of the tapestry is unknown. Western embroidery techniques were utilised to create the tapestry, which has more than 24 strands in various colours. The cloak and hood of the centaur are a central Asian adaptation of the Greek design. Another thing that sets him apart from the Greek archetypes is that he performs the horn. The lapel features of the warrior a central Asian flower and diamond pattern. A few elements, especially the animal head on the weapon of the soldier, point to the northern Iranian kingdom of Parthia as the place of origin of the tapestry. Rome has additionally been suggested as a potential source. Another theory is that it is locally produced because the Tang annal New Book of Tang reported that Khotanese locals were skilled in weaving textiles and making tapestries when Emperor Wu of Han, who reigned from 141 to 87 BC, introduced the Silk Road to Khotan in the first century BC. The tapestry might have been created about a century before Wudi led the Han Chinese to conquer the Tarim Basin. Loulan has also produced Hellenistic tapestries, suggesting a shared cultural heritage with Khotan. The presence of the tapestry likely to imply that interactions between the Hellenistic kingdoms of Central Asia and the Tarim Basin, at the frontier of the Chinese realm, began somewhere around the third century BC. [Information and Image Credit : Sampul_tapestry, Wikipedia] [Image : Probable Yuezhi soldier in red jacket and trousers, in the Sampul tapestry. Embroidered in Hellenistic style, with motif of a centaur, 1st century AD, Sampul, Ürümqi Xinjiang Region Museum ] [The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 70 years or fewer] [The work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1927. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UrumqiWarrior.jpg ]
The Unconquered Sun, also known as Sol Invictus or Helios, was long regarded as the recognised sun deity of the later Roman Empire. According to the conventional wisdom, Rome had two completely distinct sun gods, the second being Sol Invictus. Sol Indiges, also known as Sol, was the first of them; he was a lesser early Roman deity whose religion had died out by the first century AD. On the other side, Elagabalus unsuccessfully attempted to spread the religion of the Sun God Sol Invictus in Rome. The Roman emperor Aurelian did succeed in declaring the cult of Sol Invictus a state religion among the other Roman cults some fifty years later, on December 25, AD 274. According to the revisionist theory, however, Rome had only one Sun God worship that persisted from the kingship to the end of antiquity. Sol was the name of the Roman deity in question. In Rome, there were at least three Sun-related temples, all of which were from the earlier Republic and were still in use during the Empire. As a result, the academic world on Sol has recently split into two groups: traditionalists and an increasing number of revisionists. Numerous Roman gods, including Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, Apollo, and Silvanus, were given the title – Invictus or Invincible - Since the third century BC, it had been in use. The Roman religion of Sol has also persisted since the earliest records of the city. Sol was regarded as being of the utmost importance during the reign of Emperor Aurelian to Constantine I. The last mention of Sol Invictus in writing is from AD 387, and there were still enough followers of the religion till the fifth century. [Information and Image Credit : Sol_Invictus, Wikipedia] [Image : Mosaic in the Beth Alpha synagogue, featuring the Sun and the twelve zodiac constellations around it.] [The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Work (Image) is in Public Domain in the United States as well.] (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beit_alfa01.jpg ]
Between the fourth and sixth centuries AD, the nomadic Huns inhabited Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. In accordance with European legend, they were initially noted to be residing east of the Volga River, in a region which at the time belonged to Scythia; the arrival of the Huns is connected to the westward movement of an Iranian group known as the Alans. The Huns emerged on the Volga by 370 AD and by 430 AD, they had founded a sizable, if brief, reign in Europe. They had subjugated the Goths and several other Germanic peoples that resided beyond the Roman frontiers, and they had driven many others inside Roman territory. Under their King Attila in particular, the Huns often and brutally raided the Eastern Roman Empire. They attacked Italy in 452, before which they raided the Western Roman province of Gaul in 451 A.D. During the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, they clashed with a joint Roman and Visigothic army. Following the Battle of Nedao in 453 A.D. and the death of Attila, the Huns stopped to pose a significant danger to Rome and lost much of their empire. It is known that between the fourth and sixth century, descendants of the Huns—or successor groups with names identical to their own—occupied regions of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Up until the early eighth century, Hun name variations were documented in the Caucasus. The Xiongnu people, who flourished in northern China from the third century BC E until the late first century AD, have been connected to the Huns. Recent archaeogenetic research also points to the Mongolian Xiongnu origins of the Huns as well as their possible hybridization with Scythian and Germanic people [Information and Image Credit : Huns, Wikipedia] [Image : Territory under Hunnic control circa 450 AD] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported ; Wikipedia Image Author : Slovenski Volk ; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [License Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ] [Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Huns450.png ]
Saturnalia, a celebration and holiday celebrated in ancient Rome in honour of the deity Saturn, began on December 17 and later extended through December 23. The festival was marked by a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, nonstop partying and a carnival-like ambience that defied Roman social standards: gambling was allowed and masters served their servants at the table because it was regarded as a period of liberty for both servants and freedmen. In Roman mythology, Saturn was a deity of agriculture who was thought to have ruled the globe during the Golden Age, when people relished natural richness of the earth in a carefree condition. The celebrations of Saturnalia were meant to represent the circumstances of the long-gone mythological era. The Kronia, which fell between mid-July and mid-August on the Attic calendar, was the Greek counterpart and was observed on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion. A typical practise was the nomination of a — King of the Saturnalia, who would issue directives to be obeyed and oversee the revelry. Typically, funny presents or tiny wax or porcelain figurines called Sigillaria served as the gifts that were given and received. The freedom linked with Saturnalia, according to the Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry, represented the — Freeing of Souls into Immortality. Saturnalia may well have impacted a number of the customs connected to subsequent midwinter holidays in western Europe, especially those connected to Christmas, the Feast of the Holy Innocents and Epiphany. According to one of the explanations of the work of Macrobius, Saturnalia is a festival of light preceding the winter solstice, with the numerous lights present signifying the pursuit of knowledge and truth. The Dies Natalis Solis Invicti or the —Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun, was observed on December 25 in the later Roman Empire as a celebration of the return of light and the beginning of a new year. [Information and Image Credit : Saturnalia, Wikipedia] [Image: Saturnalia (1783) by Antoine Callet] [Image Availed Under : Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication (Please Relate to Source-Image URL for more Usage Property)] [License-Link :
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[Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saturnalia_by_Antoine_Callet.jpg ] #Mythology
Between 29 and 19 BC, Virgil penned the Latin epic poetry known as The Aeneid, which recounts the narrative of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the collapse of Troy and made his way to Italy, where he eventually settled and became the ancestor of the Romans. It has 9,896 dactylic hexameter lines. The first six of the twelve books of the poem describe the wanderings of Aeneas from Troy to Italy. The second part of the poem describes the eventually successful fight of the Trojans against the Latins and under name of Aeneas the Trojan followers are bound to be absorbed. Due to his appearance in the Iliad, the hero Aeneas was already well-known in both Greek and Roman myths and legends. The fragmented accounts of wanderings of Aeneas, his hazy connection to the establishment of Rome and his explanation as a figure of no fixed character-traits other than a scrupulous pietas, were used by Virgil to create the Aeneid, a persuasive foundational tale or national epic that linked Rome to Trojan legends, justified the Punic Wars, extolled conventional Roman virtues and established the Julio-Claudian monarchy as legitimate successors of the Champions, Founders and Gods of both Rome and Troy. One of the best pieces of Latin literature and largely recognised as masterpiece of Virgil is thus The Aeneid. [Information and Image Credit : Aeneid, Wikipedia] [Image : Aeneas Flees Burning Troy, by Federico Barocci (1598). Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy] [ The Work (Image) is faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, Public Domain Work of Art; The work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Image is in Public Domain as well in the United States] [Original Source Image URL :
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#Mythology
Founded in West Asia in 550 BC, the Achaemenid Empire was a former Iranian dynasty. Cyrus the Great founded it. Under Xerxes I, the Achaemenid dynasty expanded to its greatest extent, spanning from the Balkan Peninsula and Eastern Europe in the west to up to the Indian border in the east. The empire, which spanned 5.5 million square kilometres, was the biggest in history up to that point (2.1 million square miles). The founder of the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, was a related descendant of Achaemenes, from whom the empire took its name. It was the Persian nomads who created the Achaemenid Empire. Around 1000 B.C., Iranians known as the Persians came in what is now Iran and coexisted with the local Elamites in regions such as northwest Iran, the Zagros Mountains and Persis. Cyrus rebelled against the Medes in 553 BC. Around 550 BC, he overthrew the Medes, subjugated the Astyages, and took control of Ecbatana, the centre of Medes power. The Hebrew Bible relates that King Cyrus freed the Hebrew prisoners of war in Babylon after Babylon fell in order to rebuild Jerusalem, including the Second Temple, and that this earned him a respectable position in Judaism. In The Achaemenid Empire the most respected and worshipped deity was Mithra. The Achaemenid dynasty is praised for having a unique quality of religious tolerance. Varuna and Mithra were the two main deities revered in ancient Iranian religion from Iran to Rome, but Agni was also adored as names of monarchs and members of the general public displaying dedication to these three appear in the majority of cases. However, certain groups, who were the forerunners of the Magi, also praised Ahura Mazda, the leader of the Asuras. Zoroastrianism made its way to southwest Iran during the Achaemenid Empire, where its kings welcomed it and it eventually formed a significant part of Persian culture. The Religion included various innovative concepts, such as free will, in addition to the old Iranian concept of the Pantheon and the formalisation of the Gods. Zoroastrianism spread throughout the empire under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and by the fifth century BC, it had become the official religion of the realm. [Information and Image Credit : Achaemenid_Empire, Wikipedia] [Image 1: Standard of Cyrus the Great ; 2: Growth of the Achaemenid Territories on Map; 3: The tomb of Cyrus the Great, who established the Achaemenid Empire, at Pasargadae, Iran; 4: According to the Bible, Cyrus the Great is credited with releasing the Hebrew prisoners held in Babylon to return and rebuild Jerusalem, gaining Him a prestigious position in Judaism; ] [Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported , Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International and Faithful photographic Reproduction of a two-dimensional, Public Domain Work of Art (Please Also Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [License-Links: 1. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en 2. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ] [Original Source Image URL: 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great.svg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Achaemenid_Empire_under_different_kings_(flat_map).svg 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pasargad_Tomb_Cyrus3.jpg 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrus_II_le_Grand_et_les_H%C3%A9breux.jpg ]
Druids were high-class members of ancient Celtic culture. Druids were religious leaders, judicial authorities, judges, traditional custodians, doctors, and political advisers. By custom, the Druids did not leave back any written accounts. Druids are accepted be very literate, but it was believed that their doctrine or practice prevented them from writing down their knowledge in written form. However, their rites and rituals, beliefs and practices are well documented by their contemporaries from other cultures and civilizations such as Romans and Greeks. The most ancient known references to Druids are dated back to the 4th Century BCE. Historically the oldest source of information comes from Commentarii de Bello Gallico (50s or 40s BCE) of Julius Caesar. Information about the Druids was also provided by other Roman writers such as Cicero, Tacitus and Pliny the Elder! After the invasion of Gaul by Rome, the order of the Druids were suppressed by the government of Rome under the first-century AD emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and by second century they have completely disappeared from written records. Graeco-Roman and native Irish sources have come to the same conclusion that Druids have played an important role in pagan Celtic societies. In the accounts of Julius Caesar it is mentioned that they were one of the two most important social groups in the region (along with knights and aristocrats), God-serving, priest-hooding, interpreting ritual-queries and fortune-telling in the communities of Gallia, England and Ireland. Caesar also mentions that they were responsible for organizing the judicial process. According to Caesar, the Druids followed the hierarchy of a single leader and only after the death of the leader would a new leader would be selected either by vote or through means of conflict. The first author to mention that Druid lessons were secret and took place in hideouts like caves and forests was Pomponius Mela. The lore of the Druids consisted of a number of poems memorized by heart, and according to Caesar it could take up to even twenty years to complete the course of indoctrination. The curriculum taught in those days to Druid sophomores is anywhere near hypothesis. The oral literature of the Druids, not even one certified ancient verse, is known to have survived the test of times, even in translated form. All the instructions given out were given out orally. However for general usage the Gauls did have a writing language in which they used Greek letters, as is attested by Caesar. [Info and Image Credit: Druid, Wikipedia] [Images 1) Imaginative illustration of -An Arch Druid in His Judicial Habit -, from The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands by S.R. Meyrick and C.H. Smith (1815) 2) Druids Inciting the Britons to oppose the landing of the Romans – from Cassells History of England, Vol. I – anonymous author and artists 3) The Druidess, oil on canvas, by French painter Alexandre Cabanel (1823–1890)] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_Arch_Druid_in_His_Judicial_Habit.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_004.jpg ]
The period of Romanesque art in Europe was from 10th – 12th C.E. before the Rise of Gothic Art. The terminology is a 19th Century coinage by Art-Historians, particularly for Romanesque Architecture, considering the basic characteristic similarities with Architectural Styles of Rome. The similarities were particular in round-shaped arches, tunnel vaults, exedra and foliage ornamentation. But the Romanesque style also developed many distinct variations. Though the architectural style of late antiquity continued in France, Spain and Italy, it was Romanesque Art which found wide-spread acceptance in whole Catholic Europe. While paintings of Romanesque art had drawn inspiration from Byzantine art, the Insular-Art of the British Islands contributed to its anti-classical features. Exhilarating styles were continued to be practiced in both painting and sculpture outside the sphere of Romanesque architecture and had influence of Byzantine theme of iconography. Stained glasses, illuminated-manuscripts and wooden-crucifix (a German innovation of this period) showed originalities. As Europe grew more prosperous during this era, high quality of art was no longer confined to some royal courts and selected group of monasteries. It blossomed inside small churches in cities, villages as well as those on pilgrimage routes. Romanesque sculpture transpired into areas of metalwork, enamels and ivories. Figurative sculpture and architectural relief work is a trademark of late-Romanesque period and mostly biblical in subject matter. Romanesque painting included Wall-Painting and Illuminated Manuscripts and other visual arts included Embroidery (Tapestry) and Stained Glasses. [Info and Image Credit : Romanesque_art, Wikipedia ; Image License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International and 3.0 Unported 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leon_(San_Isidoro,_pante%C3%B3n).jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Santiago_Catedral_P%C3%B3rtico_da_gloria_GDFL6.JPG ]
Gothic Art was Medieval form of Art chiefly born out of Northern France and had its origin in Romanesque Art of 12th Century. It was facilitated by simultaneous evolution of Gothic Architecture and then had its spread all across West, North, Central and Southern Europe. However its impact in Italy was relatively less were classical styles remained mainstream. Gothic art had its birth in Île-de-France, France at the Abbey Church of St Denis. This form of art quickly grew out in to architecture and sculpture. It impacted both individual and structural size as well as art of textiles and paintings. Religious orders like chiefly the Cistercians and Carthusians helped in promoting and disseminating the Gothic style across Europe. Painting as a different style of Gothic Art developed some time after gothic architecture and sculpture had developed. Gothic painting was most observable in following medium namely mural paintings, illuminated manuscripts, panel-paintings and stained glasses. Etymologically the word Gothic was rather used negatively as another term for the word Barbaric. The critics of Gothic art considered it as rather crude and not refined enough compared to the aestheticism of Classical Art. Renaissance authors even considered to some degree the Sack of Rome by the Gothic tribes as the triggering point for the destruction of the Classical world and along with all values and merits held with it. During early renaissance period, Italian architects and authors even considered the Gothic art trickling down the Alps from the north art in analogy to the coarse invasion of the Barbarians of Rome and similar opposition to the Classical art revival. [Image and Info Source: Wikipedia, Gothic_Art ; Images availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International and 3.0 Unported ] [1: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Torun_SS_Johns_Mary_Magdalene.jpg 2: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg ]
In 410 C.E. the Visigoths, led by Alaric, broke the Roman walls and plundered the capital of the Roman Empire. However, the collapse of Rome was completed by 476, when German chief Odoacer expelled the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus. The richer and more powerful Byzantine Empire continued to survive throughout the Middle Ages of Europe. Over the years, the Roman Empire had gradually lost the strengths that allowed it to effectively control the western states. Modern historians assume factors such as the effectiveness and number of troops, the health and number of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the emperor's abilities, the internal power struggle, the religious changes of the times, and the efficiency of civil administrations to be all causes for the Fall of Rome. As early as i 376, countless Goths and other non-Romans fled the Huns and entered the empire. In 395, Theodosius I died after winning two devastating civil wars leaving behind a collapsed Field Army. And the empire, still ravaged by the Goths, was divided between the fighting ministers of His two incompetent sons. However, more recent studies suggest three major turn of events in the transformation of the Western Roman Empire from the heights of power. The Antonine Plague that that ended the long-term expansion of demographics and economy and weakened but did not overthrow the empire. The Crisis of the Third Century, in which climatic change, renewed pandemic disease, and internal and external political instability led to the near-collapse of the imperial system. Its recovery included a new foundation of currency, an expanded of professional device of government, an emperor further away from their people, and an exclusive proselytizing religion that catered anticipation of the imminent end of the world. Massive migration from the Eurasian Steppe overwhelmed and dismantled the western part of the empire. (Credit: Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire, Wiki & ushistory . org )
In 410 C.E. the Visigoths, led by Alaric, broke the Roman walls and plundered the capital of the Roman Empire. However, the collapse of Rome was completed by 476, when German chief Odoacer expelled the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus. The richer and more powerful Byzantine Empire continued to survive throughout the Middle Ages of Europe. Over the years, the Roman Empire had gradually lost the strengths that allowed it to effectively control the western states. Modern historians assume factors such as the effectiveness and number of troops, the health and number of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the emperor's abilities, the internal power struggle, the religious changes of the times, and the efficiency of civil administrations to be all causes for the Fall of Rome. As early as i 376, countless Goths and other non-Romans fled the Huns and entered the empire. In 395, Theodosius I died after winning two devastating civil wars leaving behind a collapsed Field Army. And the empire, still ravaged by the Goths, was divided between the fighting ministers of His two incompetent sons. However, more recent studies suggest three major turn of events in the transformation of the Western Roman Empire from the heights of power. The Antonine Plague that that ended the long-term expansion of demographics and economy and weakened but did not overthrow the empire. The Crisis of the Third Century, in which climatic change, renewed pandemic disease, and internal and external political instability led to the near-collapse of the imperial system. Its recovery included a new foundation of currency, an expanded of professional device of government, an emperor further away from their people, and an exclusive proselytizing religion that catered anticipation of the imminent end of the world. Massive migration from the Eurasian Steppe overwhelmed and dismantled the western part of the empire. (Credit: Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire, Wiki & ushistory . org )
In 410 C.E. the Visigoths, led by Alaric, broke the Roman walls and plundered the capital of the Roman Empire. However, the collapse of Rome was completed by 476, when German chief Odoacer expelled the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus. The richer and more powerful Byzantine Empire continued to survive throughout the Middle Ages of Europe. Over the years, the Roman Empire had gradually lost the strengths that allowed it to effectively control the western states. Modern historians assume factors such as the effectiveness and number of troops, the health and number of the Roman population, the strength of the economy, the emperor's abilities, the internal power struggle, the religious changes of the times, and the efficiency of civil administrations to be all causes for the Fall of Rome. As early as i 376, countless Goths and other non-Romans fled the Huns and entered the empire. In 395, Theodosius I died after winning two devastating civil wars leaving behind a collapsed Field Army. And the empire, still ravaged by the Goths, was divided between the fighting ministers of His two incompetent sons. However, more recent studies suggest three major turn of events in the transformation of the Western Roman Empire from the heights of power. The Antonine Plague that that ended the long-term expansion of demographics and economy and weakened but did not overthrow the empire. The Crisis of the Third Century, in which climatic change, renewed pandemic disease, and internal and external political instability led to the near-collapse of the imperial system. Its recovery included a new foundation of currency, an expanded of professional device of government, an emperor further away from their people, and an exclusive proselytizing religion that catered anticipation of the imminent end of the world. Massive migration from the Eurasian Steppe overwhelmed and dismantled the western part of the empire. (Credit: Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire, Wiki & ushistory . org )
Sasanian Economy :: The Iranian society in the Sasanian era was an Agrarian society and due to this fact, the Sasanian economy relied on farming and agriculture! The main exports of the Sasanians were silk; woolen and golden textiles; carpets and rugs; hides; and leather and pearls from the Persian Gulf. There were also goods in transit from China (paper, silk) and India (spices), which Sasanian customs imposed taxes upon, and which were reexported from the Empire to Europe. Due to special geographical situation of the Iranian world, the Sasanians were able to control the sea routes and due to this, they were arguably most important player in the international trade in the late antiquity. We know that in the early Sasanian period, the empire showed a great interest in establishing ports on the coast of the Persian Gulf. There were important ports on the Iranian side of the Persian Gulf in the Sassanid period, like Sirāf, Hormuz, Kujaran Artaxšīr, etc and particularly "Bōxt-Artaxšīr" or modern-day Bushehr. This port was important for the Sasanians because it linked Kazerun to center of Persis, modernday Shiraz. It`s known that in the sixth century, the Sasanians were not only bent on controlling the Arabian sea and of course, their own home waters, the Persian Gulf, but also looked further east. This brought the Persians into conflict with Rome. Silk was important in the ancient world and was something that the Romans wanted. The Sasanians also did trade with China. Iranian-Chinese trade was conducted through two ways, through the Silk Road and the sea routes! Many Sassanian coins have been found on the coast of China. The city's main economic activities were carried out by merchants (Central Persian: wāzarganan) and in the bazaar. At the Sasanian-era Bazaar, each group of craftsmen had their own department called rāste in Persian. There were also Sasanian-merchant colonies in Far-East as far as in Malaysia. (Credit: Sasanian_economy , Wiki)
Druids were high-class members of ancient Celtic culture. Druids were religious leaders, judicial authorities, judges, traditional custodians, doctors, and political advisers. The Druid did not leave a written accounts. They were reported to be literate, but it was believed that their doctrine prevented them from writing their knowledge in writing. Their beliefs and practices are well documented by contemporaries from other cultures such as Romans and Greeks. The earliest known references to Druids date back to the 4th century BCE. The oldest detailed description comes from Julius Caesar`s Commentarii de Bello Gallico (50s BCE). They were described by other Roman writers such as Cicero, Tacitus and Pliny the Elder! After Rome invaded Gaul, Druid's orders were suppressed by the Roman government under the first-century AD emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and disappeared from written records by the second century. Graeco-Roman and native Irish sources agree that Druids have played an important role in pagan Celtic societies. Julius Caesar, in his account, mentions that they are one of the two most important social groups in the region (along with knights and aristocrats), serving, priest-hooding and fortune-telling in the communities of Gallia, England and Ireland. He wrote that they were responsible for organizing the judicial process. Pomponius Mela was the first author to say that Druid lessons were secret and took place in caves and forests. Druid lore consists of a number of memorized poems, and Caesar said it could take up to 20 years to complete the course. What was taught to druid novices anywhere is conjecture: of the druids' oral literature, not one certifiably ancient verse is known to have survived, even in translation. All instructions were given verbally, but for general purposes Caesar reports, the Gauls had a writing language in which they used Greek letters. (Credit: Druid, Wkipedia)
The Slave Market is a painting first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1886 by the French artist Gustave Boulanger, who specialized in classical and Orientalist genre scenes. Its title in the Salon catalogue was Un Maquignon desclaves à Rome (A Slave Dealer in Rome), but as early as 1888 it was called Vente descalves (Sale of Slaves) in the French press, and in English it has become known as The Slave Market. (Credit: The_Slave_Market_(Boulanger_painting), Wikipedia) (Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boulanger-gustave-clarence-rudolphe-french-1824-1888-the-slave-market.png )
The Colosseum -- By Giovanni Battista Piranesi (4 October 1720 – 9 November 1778) . He was an Italian Classical archaeologist, architect, and artist, famous for his etchings of Rome and of fictitious and atmospheric prisons (Le Carceri d Invenzione). (Credit: Giovanni_Battista_Piranesi , Wikipedia) (Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Giovanni_Battista_Piranesi,_The_Colosseum.png )