The Greek word for cavalry is hippeis. Following political reforms by Solon, the hippeus ranked second among the four social classes in ancient Athens. It was made up of guys whose yearly income was at least 300 medimnoi or comparable. As to the Timocratic Constitution, the mean annual income of the populace was below 200 medimnoi. This allowed the men who earned 300 medimnoi to buy and keep a war horse while they worked for the government. The Roman equites and the medieval knights were its equivalents. The hippeus served as the regal guard of honor in Sparta. There were three hundred young Spartans under thirty in it. Following the Greco-Persian War in the fifth century BC, the Athenian cavalry was established. Its initial strength was 300 soldiers, but after Golden Age of Athens, it grew to 1,200 soldiers. This comprised 1,000 Athenians and 200 mounted bowmen. In periods of peace, the hippeus kept drilling. They participated in processions at open-air festivities as well. The levy was overseen by two hipparchi who commanded them. Five phylarchi, each in charge of a phyla, were subordinate to each hipparch. The two top courses produced both sets of officers. The boule, or council, had the responsibility of ensuring that the cavalry was in excellent working order and screening incoming recruits for eligibility and equipment. The decision of the popular assembly set the number of riders to be deployed. Upon enlisting, each horseman was granted equipment funds and a subsidy for maintaining a groom and two horses; this eventually developed into an annual grant from the state totaling forty talents; nonetheless, regular compensation was only provided in the field [Information and Image Credit : Hippeis; Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippeis ] [Image : A black-figured Laconian cup by Rider Painter with a hippeus figure on it; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Jastrow (2006)] [The copyright holder of the work (Image), released the work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: The copyright holder grant anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property and Sharing, Remixing or Attributing the Work)] [Original Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rider_BM_B1.jpg ] #History#Art
The first and most significant temple of Rome devoted to the Magna Mater, also known as the Great Mother, or Cybele as the Greeks called her, was called the Temple of Cybele or the Temple of Magna Mater. It was constructed to hold a specific image or form of the goddess, a meteoric stone that was briefly placed in the Palatine temple of goddess of Victory and brought to Rome in 204 BC at the request of an oracle from Greek Asia Minor. On April 11, 191 BC, the proscenium of the new temple hosted inaugural Megalesia celebration of Magna Mater. Situated on the elevated western flank of the Palatine, the temple had a commanding view of the Circus Maximus valley and faced the Ceres-temple situated atop the Aventine mountains. The flattened space, or proscenium, below, where the festival sports and plays in honour of the Goddess were staged, was reached by a long flight of steps rising higher. From the proscenium as well as the inside of the temple, one could see the goddess-altar. After the first temple burned down in 111 BC, a Metellus—possibly Gaius Caecilius Metellus Caprarius—restored it. In the early Imperial Empire, it burnt twice more, but Augustus rebuilt it each time, the second reconstruction being arguably the more opulent of the two. A figure of Cybele enthroned with lion attendants and a turreted crown sits atop the steps. This is in line with a massive, broken statue of the goddess that was discovered inside the temple grounds. Up to the late 4th century, the temple was still in operation [Information and Image Credit : Temple_of_Cybele_(Palatine), Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Cybele_(Palatine) ] [Image : Magna Mater Temple on a relief currently displayed at Villa Medici of Rome; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Sailko] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property and Sharing, Remixing or Attributing the Work)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ] [Original Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Controfacciata_di_villa_medici,_rilievi_romani_13_victimarii_conducono_un_bue_e_al_Tempio_della_Magna_Mater_sul_Palatino_(ara_gentis_Iuliae)_2.jpg ] #History#Art#Architecture
Situated in the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon, the Temple of Bacchus is a part of the Baalbek archeological site. The temple complex was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1984 and is regarded as an exceptional archaeological and artistic example of Imperial Roman architecture. One of the most magnificent and well-preserved Roman temple remains is this monument to Bacchus. Although its exact age is unclear, its exquisite decoration may be traced back to the second century CE. The Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius, who ruled from AD 138 to AD 161, most likely ordered the temple. The site was unknown until the Greeks conquered it in the fourth century, by which time the temple had probably closed because of the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire. Not until 1898–1903 did a German mission start excavating two of the larger temples and rebuilding the area. The Lebanese government ordered the preservation of the site and renovations in 1920 following the proclamation of the State of Greater Lebanon. Protection of the site was discontinued after the Lebanese civil war broke out in the mid-1970s and Al-Biqā turned into a stronghold for Syrian and Palestinian forces. The Baalbek ruins were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1984. After the war ended in the 1990s, the place started to be preserved. Measuring 66 meters in length, 35 meters in width, and 31 meters in height, the temple is marginally smaller than the Temple of Jupiter. The temple is situated on a podium that runs east-west. A colonnade of forty-two unfluted Corinthian columns with Ionic bases, nineteen of which remain intact, adorns the periphery wall. Inside, two levels of niches on either side are flanked by Corinthian pilasters that adorn the cella. Even upto the sixteenth century, the gateway itself remained intact. Numerous archaeological excavations and studies on The Temple of Bacchus and the complete temple complex have been conducted by the Orient Department of the German Archaeological Institute. Research and evaluation of the site are ongoing. Examples include recording sculptures and reliefs, studying the fauna found in the ruins through the lens of archaeozoology, and examining urban growth and its connection to Baalbek [Information and Image Credit : Temple_of_Bacchus, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Bacchus ] [Image : Temple of Bacchus; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Jan Hilgers] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property and Sharing, Remixing or Attributing the Work)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ] [Original Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baalbek_Baccustempel.jpg ] #History#Art#Architecture
The Heliodorus pillar is a stone column located in Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh, in central India. It was constructed in 113 BCE. Heliodorus dubbed the pillar the Garuda-standard, after the god Garuda. The pillar bears the common name Heliodorus, who served as an ambassador from Taxila to the Indian emperor Bhagabhadra on behalf of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas. The pillar bore a dedication to venerable Vāsudeva, the Deva deva, or referred to as the God of Gods and the Supreme Deity, written in Brahmi script. The pillar also exalts Bhagabhadra the Savior, the ruler of India. The column is a Stambha, signifying the union of earth, space, and heaven. It is believed to represent the cosmic axis and convey the cosmic entirety of the Deity. Alexander Cunningham made the discovery of the pillar in 1877. The pillar has been identified as a component of an ancient Vāsudeva temple site by two significant archaeological investigations conducted in the 20th century. Apart from sacred texts like the Bhagavad Gita, the Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions and the epigraphical inscriptions on the Heliodorus pillar have some of the earliest known writings of early Vaishnavism and Vāsudeva-Krishna devotion, and are regarded as the first archeological proof of its continued existence. One of the oldest surviving accounts of a foreign conversion to Vaishnavism, according to some, is the pillar [Information and Image Credit : Heliodorus_pillar, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliodorus_pillar ] [Image : Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha, India; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Dilipkumarftii1977] [Image is availed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International License; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property and Sharing, Remixing or Attributing the Work)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en ] [Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heliodorus_pillar_(cropped).jpg ] #History#Art#Architecture
The medieval castle and palace complex of the Hungarian kings is located in Budapest and is known as Buda Castle. Although the huge Baroque palace that now occupies most of the site was built between 1749 and 1769, the original construction was completed in 1265. The building complex used to be known as the Royal Castle or the Royal Palace. The Budapest Historical Museum and the Hungarian National Gallery are currently located within the castle. Buda Castle is located on the southernmost point of Castle Hill and is encircled by the popular tourist destination of Várnegyed, which is well-known for its churches, monuments, homes, and structures from the Middle Ages, Baroque, and Neoclassical periods. The Castle Hill Funicular connects the hill to Clark Ádám Square and the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. In 1987, the castle was officially designated as a part of the Budapest World Heritage Site. During the Kádár era, the original Royal Palace was reconstructed in a simplified Stalinist Baroque design after being destroyed during World War II. King Béla IV of Hungary constructed the first royal home atop Castle Hill between 1247 and 1265. It is unclear if it was located close to the Kammerhof on the northern elevation or at the southernmost point of the hill. Younger brother of King Louis I of Hungary, Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, constructed the earliest portion of the current palace in the fourteenth century. The foundation of the castle keep are all that are left. Gothic residence of King Louis I was set around a small courtyard next to the fortress. King Sigismund upgraded the defenses of the palace and greatly expanded it. As the Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund required an opulent palace to symbolize his importance among the rulers of Europe. During his lengthy rule, he made Buda Castle his principal residence, and it grew to be arguably the biggest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. A significant hub for the artistic development of the International Gothic style was Buda. Large-scale construction activity peaked during the reign of King Matthias Corvinus. The king completed construction on the Gothic palace in the first several decades of his reign. That is probably when the Royal Chapel and the Lower Church that still stand were constructed. Italian humanists, artists, and craftsmen came to Buda with the marriage of Matthias and Beatrice of Naples in 1476. The capital of Hungary developed into the first Renaissance hub north of the Alps. The palace was reconstructed by the king in the early Renaissance style. The humanists in the court of of Matthias Corvinus typically associated him with Hercules; panels illustrations of the exploits of the Greek hero adorned the bronze gates, and a massive bronze statue of the hero greeted visitors in the forecourt of the palace complex, the site of jousts. The palace was restored during reign of King John Zápolya. Italian military engineers constructed the Great Rondella on the southernmost point of Castle Hill. One of the primary remnants of the former palace is the circular bastion [Information and Image Credit : Buda_Castle, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buda_Castle ] [Image : Buda Castle; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Marc Ryckaert (MJJR)] [Image is availed under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property and Sharing, Remixing or Attributing the Work)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ] [Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Budapest_Castle_R02.jpg ] #Castles#History
At Cumae, a Greek settlement close to Naples, Italy, the priestess in charge of the Apollonian oracle was known as the Cumaean Sibyl. The ancient Greek word Sibylla, which implies prophetess, is whence the word sibyl originates. Throughout antiquity, sibyls were prevalent. Due to her close proximity to Rome and her significance in the early Roman traditions preserved in Aeneid VI of Virgil, the Cumaean Sibyl rose to prominence among the Roman populace. Greek mythology associated the Erythraean Sibyl with modern-day Turkey, and the Sibyl of Dodona, the oldest known Greek oracle, with Herodotus dating her to the second millennium BC, with eastern favor. One of four sibyl paintings by Raphael in Santa Maria della Pace is the Cumaean Sibyl. Andrea del Castagno portrayed her as well. In Sistine Ceiling of Michelangelo , her strong presence dwarfs that of all the other sibyls, including the younger and more attractive sisters like the Delphic Sibyl
[Information and Image Credit : Cumaean_Sibyl , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumaean_Sibyl ]
[Image : Cumaean Sibyl by Andrea del Castagno (1420–1457)]
The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Work (Image) is also believed to be in Public Domain in the United States of America as well. (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)]
[Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SibylCumae.jpg ]
#Mythology
One of the episodic stories found in Book VI of the epic Aeneid, composed by the Roman poet Virgil between 70 and 19 BC, is The Golden Bough. It tells the story of exploits of Aeneas following the Trojan War. Aeneas departs from Troy during its final conflict with the Greeks and embarks on a journey to locate a new home in the western Mediterranean. Aeneas travels to Italy on this mission, led by the prophet Helenus, with the goal of founding a city for his people. When he arrives at the Temple of Apollo, Deiphobe, the Sibyl of Cumae, who was almost seven hundred years old at the time, agrees to accompany him on a voyage into the underworld in order to grant his yearning to see the shadow of his father. Deiphobe instructs Aeneas to bury the musician Misenus before going into the underworld. He also has to take the gold bough that grows close in the forests around her cave and deliver it to Proserpina, the queen of Pluto, the king of the underworld, as a present. Mother of Aeneas, the goddess Venus, sends two doves to help him with this challenging mission in the woods, and they assist him in locating the tree. A second golden bough appears as soon as Aeneas tears off the first one, which is auspicious as the Sibyl had predicted that the impending enterprise would fail if this did not occur. Aeneas is able to begin his journey into the Underworld after the Trojans, under the leadership of Corynaeus, perform funeral rituals of Misenus. Charon refuses to allow them to get on his boat and cross the Stygian river until the Sibyl shows him the golden twig. She casts a drugged cake to Cerberus, the three-headed watchdog, on the other side, and he swallows it and goes to sleep. After arriving in the Underworld, Aeneas attempts to communicate with a few shadows and hears the Sibyl describe locations such as Tartarus, where he sees a sizable prison surrounded by three walls, where evil men are imprisoned and a flaming river called Phlegethon. Aeneas enters palace of Pluto, places the golden bough on the arched door, and proceeds to the Elysian Fields—the home of individuals who lived morally upright and productive lives. At last, Anchises, father of Aeneas, may be found in the verdant, bright city of Elysium, where the lovely Eridanus River runs. Aeneas makes three unsuccessful attempts to embrace his father because the shadow of his father vanishes into thin air or vacant dreams. They nevertheless have a pleasant encounter, and Anchises informs his son about the neighboring river Lethe, also known as the river of forgetfulness, which had a plethora of spirits waiting to be born on Earth on the other side. There were people who lived in the future Roman Empire, such Marcellus, Romulus, Camillus, and the Caesars, as well as people who would be descendants of Aeneas. After offering Aeneas some counsel, Anchises shows him the way to the ivory gate, one of the Sleeping Gates, which allows them to return to Earth
[Information and Image Credit : The_Golden_Bough_(mythology), Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Golden_Bough_(mythology) ]
[Image : Deiphobe leading Aeneas in the underworld by Claude Lorrain, circa 1673 ]
[ The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 70 years or fewer. The Work (Image) is also believed to be in Public Domain in the United States of America as well. (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)]
[Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Deiphobe_and_Aeneas_in_the_Underworld_by_Claude_Gellee.jpg ]
#Mythology
One of the main gods of Slavic mythology was Dazhbog, also known as Daždźboh or Dazhboh. He was presumably a solar deity and perhaps a cultural hero. Several medieval texts describe him as one of several genuine Slavic gods, and he is among the few that all Slavic tribes have proof of worshiping. One of the seven gods whose statues Prince Volodymyr the Great built in front of his palace in Kyiv in 980, when he came to the throne, is Dazhbog, according to the Primary Chronicle, a history of early Kyivan Rus. The Hypatian Codex, a 15th-century compilation of numerous far older writings from the Russian Ipatiev Monastery, has the most fascinating section about Dazhbog. This is a Slavic translation of a sixth-century Greek manuscript written by Malalin. The gods Hephaestus and Helios are named in the Greek text. The Moon is a male deity and the Sun is a female deity, Saule, in Baltic mythology, which is most similar to Slavic mythology. Similar patterns may be found in the folklore of many Slavic countries, where the Moon is typically associated with a husband or father and the Sun with a mother, with the stars representing their offspring. This makes Dazhbog an extremely noteworthy potential masculine solar deity in the Slavic pantheon. Dazhbog is also thought by many mythologists to be identical to Khors, another East Slavic god who may have solar aspects. According to the Primary Chronicle passage, Khors Dazhbog can be a sign of a compound deity. It is also assumed that this god had two names: Dazhbog is a Slavic one, and Khors is an Iranian, probably Sarmatian or Scythian origin
[Information and Image Credit : Dazhbog, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dazhbog ]
[Image : Dazhbog by Andrey Shishkin]
[Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported; ; (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ]
[Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dazhbog_by_Andrey_Shishkin.jpg ]
#Mythology
Mysterious fairies named Bereginyas, Berehynias, or Brzeginias are referenced in The Lay of St. Gregory the Theologian of the Idols, which was preserved in a manuscript from Novgorod in the fifteenth century. The Lay is an anthology of translations from Greek sources that a Kievan monk from the 12th century annotated. The literature mentions Bereginyas as the first entities worshipped by the Slavs, even before the cult of Perun was brought in their regions; nonetheless, it appears that later scribes made significant revisions to it. There is no information provided concerning Bereginyas, leaving plenty of room for conjecture of all kinds. Boris Rybakov explains that the term refers to Slavic mermaids, but unlike Rusalkas, they were kindhearted. The term is related to the Slavic word for riverbank. Following the release of the findings by Rybakov, Slavic neo-pagans have come to favor the Bereginya, viewing it as a potent pagan goddess as opposed to a simple water sprite
[Information Credit : Supernatural_beings_in_Slavic_religion, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernatural_beings_in_Slavic_religion ]
[Image Credit : Andrey_Shishkin, Wikipedia]
[Image : Bereginya by Andrey Shishkin]
[Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License; (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)]
[License-Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ]
[Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bereginya_by_Andrey_Shishkin.jpg ]
#Mythology
The mother goddess of Anatolia, Cybele, may have had an early Neolithic ancestor in Çatalhöyük. She was likely the national divinity of Phrygia and is the only goddess known to exist there. There is no extant tale or literature that describes the original nature or characteristics of the Phrygian cult of Cybele. She might have developed from a kind of statuary from Anatolia called Çatalhöyük, which dates to the sixth millennium BC and is thought by some to be a mother goddess. It depicts a corpulent, fertile female figure surrounded by big cats. The cult features of the Phrygian mother-goddess, seen in 8th-century BC Phrygian art, include attendant lions, a prey-bird and a little vase for her offerings or libations. Around the sixth century BC, Greek colonists in Asia Minor took up and modified her Phrygian cult, which they then brought to mainland Greece and the farther-flung western Greek colonies. Cybele had a mixed response when she arrived in Greece. She began to adopt characteristics of the harvest-mother goddess Demeter, the Earth-goddess Gaia, and her potential Minoan counterpart Rhea. Her most famous Greek ceremonies and processions portray her as an inherently alien, exotic mystery-goddess who arrives in a lion-drawn chariot to the accompaniment of wild music, wine, and an agitated, ecstatic following. However, some city-states, most notably Athens, invoked her as a protector. She held a eunuch mendicant priesthood, which was unique in Greek religion. Rituals to a divine Phrygian castrate shepherd-consort Attis, who was most likely a Greek fabrication, were part of many of her Greek religions. In Greece, Cybele came to be connected to mountains, city walls, lush surroundings, and untamed animals, particularly lions. Cybele earned the title Magna Mater or Great Mother, in Rome. Once the Sibylline oracle in 205 BC urged her conscription as a crucial religious ally in the second war of Rome against Carthage between 218 and 201 BC, the Roman state adopted and developed a specific form of her cult. Roman mythographers reinterpreted her as a Trojan goddess, and thus an ancestral goddess of the Roman people through the Trojan prince Aeneas. Romanized versions of the cults of Cybele spread throughout empire as Rome eventually consolidated dominance over the Mediterranean region. Greek and Roman writers argued and argued over the morality and significance of her cults and priesthoods, topics that are still contentious in contemporary scholarship
[Information and Image Credit : Cybele, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele ]
[Image : Cybele in a chariot driven by Nike and drawn by lions toward a votive sacrifice (right); above are heavenly symbols including a solar deity, Plaque from Ai Khanoum, Bactria (Afghanistan), 2nd century BC; Gilded silver; Wikipedia-Image-Author : World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims)]
[The copyright holder of the work(Image), released the work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: the copyright holder grants anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law. The work (Image) is also in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer; (Please Relate to Original Image URL for More Usage Property) ] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg ] #History#Art
About 35 kilometers southeast of modern-day Baghdad, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, was the ancient city of Ctesiphon. For more than eight centuries, Ctesiphon was the imperial capital of the Parthian and Sasanian dynasties. From 226 to 637 AD, Ctesiphon served as the capital of the Sasanian Empire until up to middle of 7th century. As it grew, Ctesiphon became a thriving commercial center that merged with the cities on either side of the river, including the Hellenistic city of Seleucia. For this reason, Ctesiphon and the surrounding area were occasionally referred to as -- The Cities. According to some accounts, it was the largest metropolis in the world in the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Ctesiphon fell three times to the Romans during the Roman–Parthian Wars and twice more during Sasanian authority. Additionally, the Battle of Ctesiphon took place there in AD 363. The city began to deteriorate later in the 7th century, and by the end of the 8th century, it had lost its population. Occasionally referred to as the Archway of Ctesiphon, the Taq Kasra is the most notable building that still stands today. The population of Ctesiphon was highly diverse throughout the Sasanian era, comprising Arameans, Persians, Greeks, and Assyrians. The city was also home to a number of religious communities, including Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity. The Manicheans, a dualist church that Ctesiphon continued to acknowledge, were also among the inhabitants. The Manicheans who survived in the ninth century uprooted their patriarchate at Samarkand and fled up the Silk Road [Information and Image Credit : Ctesiphon ; Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesiphon ] [Image : Remains of Taq Kasra in 2022; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Safa . daneshvar ] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en ] [Wikipedia-Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:001125-TaqKasra-Iraq-IMG_7914-2.jpg ] #History
Near modern-day Shahhat, Libya, is the ancient Greek and later Roman city of Cyrene. The pentapolis, a group of five Greek cities in the area, was its most significant member. Eastern Libya was given the ancient name Cyrenaica, which it has kept up to this day. On a ridge in the Jebel Akhdar uplands, Cyrene is located. The spring, Cyra, which the Greeks dedicated to Apollo, was the source of the name of the city. The numerous colossal temples, stoas, theaters, bathhouses, churches, and sumptuous villas that make up the archaeological remains span several hectares. The Necropolis of Cyrene encircles the city. A dynasty of monarchs known as the Battiads initially ruled the city, which was founded by Greek colonists in the late seventh century BC. They became wealthy and powerful as a result of successive waves of immigration and the export of horses and silphium, a medicinal plant. They had increased their control over the other Cyrenaica cities by the fifth century BC. In the fourth century BC, Aristippus, a student of Socrates, established the Cyrenaics, a school of thought, and it eventually became their headquarters. The city alternated in the Hellenistic Age between serving as the seat of an autonomous monarchy and Ptolemaic Egypt. It transferred to the Roman Republic in 96 BC and was included in the province of Crete and Cyrenaica. During the Kitos War, Jewish fighters destroyed the city in 115 AD. Over the course of the next century, it was gradually restored. The city was damaged by earthquakes in 262 and 365 AD, but some inhabitants persisted into the early Byzantine era [Information Credit : Cyrene,_Libya, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya ] [Image Credit : Archaeological_site, Wikipedia] [Image : Sanctuary of Apollo at Cyrene; Wikipedia-Image-Author : Maher27777] [The copyright holder of the work (Image), release this work into the public domain. This applies worldwide; In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so: The copyright holder granted anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law.] [(Please Relate to Original Image URL for More Usage Property) ] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrene8.jpg ] #History#Architecture
The goddess of untamed nature, forests, hunting, and the moon revered by the Western Slavs is Devana, Zevana, and less frequently Zievonya. Her reference in the sources dates back to the 15th century, when Jan Dugosz linked her to the Roman goddess Diana. She occasionally performs with Morana in folk rites. Verbascum, which is used to treat respiratory issues and for skin care, is also known as dziewanna in Polish. The closest Slavic analogs to nymphs, who serve as helpers of Artemis in Greek mythology, are boginki, which are indigenous to Western Slavs, primarily in Poland. Young females known as boginki live at the edges of reservoirs, forests, and caverns where they emerge at night, particularly on nights with the summer moon. They are mostly naked or clad in white. While caring for wild creatures, they frequently displayed hostility against people, particularly men. Their behavior was controlled by the moon, which was their deity. Boginki were also expected to use a bow for shooting. These characteristics of boginki nymphs could link them to Devana-Artemis, the moon and forest goddess. A few legends may refer to Devana, yet she does not actually appear in folklore outside of the sources indicated above. The tale of Łysa Góra, which was portrayed in Polish culture as the Polish Olympus, may be an allusion to Devana. Local lore claims that there was once a Gord or a castle on Łysa Góra before the monastery was constructed there. According to the folktale, the Proud Lady, who served the castle as her seat, and giants were supposed to build the castle. The Proud Lady, who would go on to defeat Alexander the Great, erred by being self-centered and claiming to be Diana. God could not take it and used lightning to level the castle. Sometimes Devana is identified as The Proud Lady
[Information and Image Credit : Devana, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devana ]
[Image : Devana by Andrey Shishkin, 2013] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported; (Please Relate to Source Image-URL for more Image Usage Property)]
[License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ]
[Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Devana_by_Andrey_Shishkin.jpg ]
#Mythology
In Roman and Hellenistic religion, Diana is a goddess who is principally revered as the protector of the countryside, hunters, crossroads, and the Moon. Despite having an independent Italian origin, she is often compared to the Greek goddess Artemis and adopted much of the mythology of Artemis early in Roman history. She was born on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona and had a twin brother named Apollo. Diana is revered as a virgin goddess and a maternity protector. Diana once shared a trio of roles with the water nymph Egeria, who served as her attendant and assisting midwife, and the woodland god Virbius. Many contemporary neopagan cults, such as Roman neopaganism and Stregheria, honor Diana. Diana has been seen as a triple divinity throughout history, merging with a goddess of the moon, such as Luna or Selene, and the underworld, which is typically associated with Hecate. Persona of Diana is intricate and includes a number of antiquated elements. Diana was once thought of as a goddess of the wild and of the hunt, which was an important sport in both Roman and Greek culture. Diana was principally honored as a huntress and protector of hunters in early Roman inscriptions. Later, throughout the Hellenistic era, Diana came to be equally or even more venerated as a goddess of the tame countryside, or Villa Rustica, as opposed to the wild woods, which was often idealized in Greek thinking and poetry. The Greek goddess Artemis was the first to assume this dual role as the goddess of both civilization and the wild, and consequently of the civilized countryside. By the third century CE, when Greek culture had a significant impact on Roman religion, Diana had nearly completely merged with Artemis and had adopted many of her characteristics, both in terms of her spiritual realms and how she was described physically
[Information and Image Credit : Diana_(mythology), Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_(mythology) ]
[Image : Diana Hunting, Guillaume Seignac]
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#Mythology
Dola represents personification of fate and destiny in human form and is historically connected to the Slavic words for division and part. Dola is a companion who is allotted to a person at birth and remains with him throughout life. It might have come from forefathers. Although usually unseen, it has occasionally taken on human or animal shape. Nedola, the personification of bad luck, stood in contrast to Dola, who was thought of as good fortune. Particularly invisible spirits or deities of fate in Slavic pre-Christian religion included the rozhanitsy, narecnitsy and sudzhenitsy. They are frequently mentioned alongside Rod and have to do with pregnancy, motherhood, marriage, and female ancestors. Typically, there were three of them together, but there were as many as nine, one of whom was a Queen or Singular. They have a connection to Dola, but it is unclear how. They were revered as zorze or auroras in Poland. Dolya, whose name denotes division, participation, and bad luck like in Nedolya, was thus also known as the personification of fortune among the Eastern Slavs. On the other hand, Sreća, whose name means Luck, is among the Serbs and Croats. Other characters, such as Boginki in Lesser Poland and Kraśniki in Pomerania, served as rozhanitsy in some parts of Poland. The Mothers of God or saintly women took the place of the rozhanitsy with the spread of Christianity. Parascheva, Anastasia, and Barbara are referenced in the Russian folktale charms of a maturing boy, as well as Mother of God in Bulgarian folklore. The roles of rozhanitsy were also taken over by angels or perhaps sometimes by Christ himself. Old Russian texts occasionally refer to Rod and Rodzanica as a pair, while Rozhanitsa is also mentioned as a single person. One such source is the Gesta regum Anglorum of the 12th century, which mentions the worship of Svetovid among the Slavs of the Elbe and compares him to the Roman Fortuna and the Greek Týchē. Fortuna is rendered as Rozhanitsa in the 13th-century Russian translation of this chronicle. In Southern Slavic folklore, rozhanitsy are either described as lovely young women or as kind-hearted old ladies. They may also appear as three ladies of varying ages, such as a young girl, an adult, and an elderly woman. They were regarded as having lovely faces with round, white cheeks by Southern Slavs. They were reported to be wearing all-white clothing, sporting white hats or mob caps, and wearing silver and gold jewelry. It was claimed that they held lit candles in their palms, which allowed moonlight to clearly see their outlines. They were referred to as old women or white-dressed virgins by the Czechs. They were reported to be tall and transparent, with pale cheeks, eyes that sparkled and charmed others, and exquisite stone-adorned hair. They were said to wear white bonnets or veils, just like the southern Slavs. According to legend, the Rozhanitsy looked after expectant mothers and decided the future of the child once it was born. Three days after the birth of the child, at midnight, the rozhanitsy came at its cradle, where they were meant to predict the future success or failure of the child. After deciding the fate of the child, it was preserved as an irremovable mark on the forehead. The views of the rozhanitsy about the destiny of the child were frequently in conflict. Hence the oldest parent made the final decision. The thread of life is spun by the first and youngest rozhanitsa, measured by the second, and severed by the third; the longer the thread, the longer is the life. Among southern Slavs, rozhanitsy and sudzhenitsy—who were supposed to manifest before death and at pivotal moments in life—were occasionally distinguished. Rozhanitsy were occasionally requested to shield the household from diseases as well
[Information Credit : Deities_and_fairies_of_fate_in_Slavic_mythology, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deities_and_fairies_of_fate_in_Slavic_mythology ]
[Information Credit : List_of_Slavic_deities, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Slavic_deities ]
[Image-Credit : List_of_Slavic_deities, Wikipedia]
[Image : Srecha-Udacha (Luck) by Andrey Shishkin]
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A druid belonged to the elite priestly class in prehistoric Celtic nations. Druids were respected members of the clergy who also served as judges, jurists, lorekeepers, healers, and political advisers. Druids left no records in writing. Although they are thought to have been literate, dogma is thought to have stopped them from writing down their knowledge. Their contemporaneous people from other cultures, such the Romans and the Greeks, have provided some detail about their beliefs and practices. The druids are first mentioned in texts from the fourth century BCE. The first complete account is found in Commentarii de Bello Gallico by Julius Caesar, written in 50 BCE. Other Roman authors including Cicero, Tacitus, and Pliny the Elder described them. Following the Roman invasion of Gaul, the druid orders were suppressed by the Roman government under the emperors Tiberius and Claudius in the first century CE, and by the second century, they had vanished from written records. Fraternal and neopagan organizations were created in the aftermath of the Celtic renaissance in the 18th and 19th centuries, and this development is known as Neo-Druidism. Popular beliefs about druids that were based on misinformation from 18th-century historians have mostly been replaced by more modern research. The druids had a significant role in Celtic civilization, according to both Greco-Roman and indigenous Irish sources. They are considered to have been one of the two most significant social classes in the area, together with the equites, or nobility, and were in charge of setting up rituals and sacrifices, divination, and judicial processes in Gallic, British, and Irish communities. Caesar stated that the study of druidic lore could take up to twenty years because it involved memorizing a huge number of lines. Although Caesar claims that the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters, all education was delivered verbally. He likely draws inspiration from previous authors because by the reign of Caesar, Gaulish inscriptions had switched from Greek to Latin writing. Caesar thought that the oral tradition of information transmission and hostility to writing down ideas sprang from two goals: first, a desire to prevent the knowledge from spreading and, second, a desire to strengthen their memory
[Information and Image Credit : Druid, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druid ]
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#Mythology#History
Myths, tales, and folklores of numerous cultures all involve dogs in some way. Dogs frequently act as pets or watchdogs in mythology. Dog guarding the gates of the afterlife tales are common in Indo-European myths and may have their roots in Proto-Indo-European religion. Some of these have to do with the relationship between dogs and the star Sirius, the union of humans and dogs, and the gatekeeping mentioned above in Indo-European mythology. There is evidence to support a relationship between the genetic and prehistoric records of dog domestication and the mythical heritage of many societies. For the Aztec people of central Mexico, dogs held significant religious and symbolic meaning. The Aztec god of death, Xolotl, was shown as a monster with head of a dog. One of the 12 animals revered in Chinese astrology is the dog. Chinese people frequently remember to treat dogs nicely on the second day of the Chinese New Year since it is believed that all dogs celebrate their birthdays on that day. Dogs are revered in China, Korea, and Japan as loving protectors. A dragon-dog named Panhu changed into a man and wed a princess. Yama, the Hindu god of death, is the owner of two four-eyed watchdogs. They are reported to keep watch over gates of Naraka (Hell). The Vahana, or mount, of Hindu god Bhairava is a dog. Many Hindus have the widespread notion that caring for or adopting dogs can also open the door to paradise because Yudhishthira in Mahabharata had traveled to heaven with his dog, Yama, who was the god himself. Dogs are discovered to have a sacred significance and figure as an essential symbol in religious imagery, but the Ancient Egyptians are more frequently connected with cats in the form of Bastet. Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the underworld, was associated with dogs. Dogs were occasionally interred in the Anubieion tombs at Saqqara during their time in use. Anput was the wife of Anubis, and she was frequently shown as a jackal carrying a child, breastfeeding a baby, or brandishing a weapon. In the classical era, Hecate was strongly related to dogs. For Artemis and Ares, dogs were sacrosanct. The three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog Cerberus stands guard at the entrances to Hades. In Greek myth, a dog named Laelaps existed. The protection of Zeus was entrusted to a dog known only as the Golden Hound when he was a little child. In Christianity, dogs stand for loyalty. Specifically within Roman Catholicism, the iconography of Saint Dominic has a dog since the mother of the saint dreamed of a dog emerging from her womb and soon thereafter became pregnant. The patron saint of dogs according to the Roman Catholic Church is Saint Roch, who lived in France in the early 14th century. The dog is revered in Zoroastrianism as a particularly good, pure, and virtuous creature that has to be fed and cared for. The dog is commended for the helpful tasks it completes around the house, but it is also thought to possess unique spiritual qualities. Similar to Hinduism, dogs are associated with Yama, who uses them to guard the gates of the afterlife
[Information Credit : Dogs_in_religion, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogs_in_religion ]
[Image : AI Generated Image of Dogs as Angels] #Mythology
The ballista, sometimes known as the ballistae (plural), was a historical missile weapon that fired either bolts or stones at a distant target. It was derived from older Greek weapons, but its mechanics were different, using two levers with torsion springs in place of a tension prod, such as the bow of a contemporary crossbow. The springs were made out of a number of twisted skein loops. Early models used spherical stone projectiles of varying diameters or heavy darts for siege warfare. It evolved into the scorpio, a more compact precision weapon, and maybe the polybolos. Early ballistae in Ancient Greece were created from the oxybeles and gastraphetes, two weapons. A portable crossbow served as the gastraphetes. It was spanned by anchoring the front of the weapon against the ground and pressing the end of a slider mechanism against the stomach. It had a composite prod. A ratchet would stop the weapon from firing while it was being loaded, and the operator would then move forward to arm it. It was stated that this resulted in a weapon that could be operated by a person of average strength but had the ability to be utilized effectively against armored forces. The oxybeles were a larger, more substantial structure that used a winch and was supported by a tripod. It served as a siege engine and had a slower rate of fire. High-tech Greek inventions started to spread throughout various territories under Roman control after the Greek city-states were absorbed into the Roman Republic in 146 BC. The torsion-powered ballista, which by this time had spread to other cities in the Mediterranean, was adopted by the Romans. All of these cities ended up as Roman spoils of war, including one from Pergamon, which was portrayed beside a collection of trophy weaponry in relief on a balustrade. The Romans improved the torsion ballista even further, especially into much smaller ones that could be transported. The torsion ballista was designed by Alexander and was a far more sophisticated weapon than its predecessor. Iron plates surrounding the frames and iron nails in the stand held the wooden early Roman ballistae together. The top of the main stand had a slider into which the bolts or stone shot were loaded. The bowstring could be ratcheted back to the firing position by using a pair of winches and a claw that were attached to this at the back. The slider moved through the field frames of the weapon, which housed the torsion springs that were wound around the bow arms and connected to the bowstring. The ballista was further developed by the Romans, who made it a highly regarded and valuable weapon for their army. Julius Caesar, for example, thus employed it during his conquest of Gaul and both of his attempts to subdue Britain shortly prior to the establishment of the Empire
[Image and Information Credit : Ballista, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballista ] [Image : Illustration of a ballista being loaded and drawn]
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[Wikipedia-Source-Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ballista_(PSF)_vector.svg ] #History
Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892), a famous Victorian poet, wrote the poem Ulysses in 1833 in blank verse form and included it in his well appreciated second volume of poetry in 1842. It is an iconic instance of the dramatic monologue and a poem that is frequently referenced. The mythical hero Ulysses, facing old age, recalls his dissatisfaction and restlessness upon returning to his homeland, Ithaca. Ulysses longs to go once more despite his reunion with his wife Penelope and son Telemachus. Ulysses, or Odysseus as he is known in Greek, has been extensively discussed in literature. Tennyson draws on account of Homer regarding journey of Odysseus in the poem. The exploits of Odysseus were first told in Iliad and Odyssey, written around 800–700 BC. However, the majority of critics believe that Ulysses by Tennyson evokes Ulisse by Dante from his Inferno, written around 1320. Ulisse is sent to hell with the false counselors in the retelling of the story by Dante because he sought knowledge that was beyond the scope of human understanding and because he invented the ruse of Trojan horse. For a significant portion of the existence of the poem, readers admired Ulysses for his resolve -- To Strive, To Seek, To Find, and Not To Yield, and they saw him as a hero. The comments of Tennyson on the poem and the personal circumstances—the passing of his best friend—that inspired it lend credence to the idea that he envisioned a heroic character. In the 20th century, numerous fresh readings of Ulysses drew attention to potential ironies. They challenged more favorable views of the character of Ulysses by showing how he mirrors problematic protagonists in older literature. They suggested, for instance, that Ulysses intends to selfishly abandon his kingdom and family
[Information and Image Credit : Ulysses_(poem), Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses_(poem) ]
[Image : A Roman mosaic depicting a maritime scene with Odysseus (Ulysses), from Carthage, 2nd century AD]
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Mithra, also known as Mehr or Mithras among Romans, is an ancient Iranian deity of covenants, light, oath, justice, the sun, contracts, and friendship. In addition to being a divinity who makes contracts, Mithra is also a judge, an all-seeing guardian of the truth, and a defender of the waterways, the harvest, and the livestock. The Mithraic enigmas were explained by the Romans using the Zoroastrian Persian texts. Both the Gathas, the oldest literature of Zoroastrianism and traditionally attributed to Zoroaster himself, and the Yasna Haptanghaiti, a seven-verse portion of the Yasna ritual, do not however specifically mention Mithra. In the Iranian Ahuric Triad, which also includes Ahura Mazda and Ahura Berezaiti or Apam Napat, Mithra is a respected figure. In his role as the Divinity of Contract, Mithra is unshakeable, without flaw, alert at all times, and never at rest. Furthermore, Mithra is the protector of livestock, and his company name is Wide Pastures. He ensures that the pastures receive enough water in his capacity as the guardian of water. Several royal Achaemenid inscriptions mention the god, despite the absence of Mithraic imagery at this time. In the Zoroastrian calendar, Mithra protects and honors both the sixteenth day of the month and the seventh month of the year. Since the Iranian civil calendar adopted the Zoroastrian month names in 1925, the seventh month of the year has also been referred to as Mihr. The first day of the second half of the month and the first month of the second half of the year are, respectively, the sixteenth day and the seventh month, reflecting the place of the Mithra in the hierarchy of the Divinities. In Zoroastrian literature, Mithra is distinguished from the divinity of the Sun, whose name is Hvare-khshaeta, which means Radiant Sun and in Middle Persian is the source of the word Khorshed for the Sun. Nevertheless, in Zoroastrian mythology, Mithra developed from an all-seeing figure, and therefore loosely related with the Sun, into a divinity co-identified with the Sun itself, thereby effectively replacing Hvare-khshaeta. It is unclear how, when, or why this happened, although it is frequently attributed to confusion with the Greek deity Apollo and/or the Babylonian solar god Mithra, with whom Mithra shares a number of traits, including a judicial role and a connection to the solar. Because Mithra/Mitra is related with sunrise in the Atharvaveda and the Indic Rigveda has solar deities that are similar to them, this trait is a part of Indian heritage of Mithra. Even in modern times, sun salutations are performed daily around the world in Yogic activity and are preceded by the chanting of OM Mitraya Namaha, where Mitraya is one of the 108 names for Lord Surya/Sun God. Mithra-related royal names can be found in the dynasties of Parthia, Armenia, Anatolia, Pontus, and Cappadocia. Images from other Iranian cultures during the Parthian period, such as Commagene on the boundary between Roman and Parthian civilization and the Kushan Empire on the Indo-Iranian border, feature a young Mithra in the style of Apollo [Information Credit : Mithra, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra ] [Image Credit : Mithraism, Wikipedia] [Image : A Roman tauroctony relief from Aquileia (c. 175 CE; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported ; Wikipedia-Image-Author : CristianChirita; (Please Relate to Source-Image URL for more Usage Property)] [License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en ] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KunsthistorischesMuseumMithrabulSacrifice.jpg ] #History
Roman mystery religion Mithraism, also known as the Mithraic mysteries or the Cult of Mithras, was based on the god Mithras. The Roman Mithras is associated with a new and distinctive imagery, with the degree of continuity between Persian and Greco-Roman practice being disputed, despite being inspired by Iranian worship of the Zoroastrian god (i.e., yazata) Mithra. From around the first through the fourth century CE, the mysteries were a favorite among the Imperial Roman troops. The seven levels of initiation and shared ceremonial meals were part of a complicated system used by Mithras worshippers. Syndexioi, those -- United by the Handshake, was the name given by initiates. They met in one of the several Mithraea, or underground temples, that still exist today. The worship is thought to have originated in Rome and spread throughout the western half of the empire, including Roman Africa and Numidia in the south, Roman Dacia in the east, Roman Britain in the north, and to a lesser extent Roman Syria in the east. Early Christianity is perceived as competing with Mithraism. Christians later persecuted Mithraists throughout the fourth century, and by the end of the century, the religion had been outlawed and suppressed in the Roman Empire. Throughout the Roman Empire, numerous archaeological discoveries, including gathering sites, monuments, and artifacts, have added to our current understanding of Mithraism. The most well-known images of Mithras depict him emerging from a rock or dining with the god Sol, or the Sun. There would have been at least 680 mithraea in Rome, according to estimates. Limited information may be gleaned from the inscriptions and fleeting or passing references in Greek and Latin literature; no written narratives or theology from the religion have survived. The interpretation of the tangible evidence is still up for debate [Information and Image Credit : Mithraism, Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraism ] [Image: Mosaic (1st century CE) depicting Mithras emerging from his cave and flanked by Cautes and Cautopates (Walters Art Museum)] [Image : The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Walters Art Museum. Walters Art Museum grants anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law] [Wikipedia-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_-_Fragment_of_a_Mosaic_with_Mithras_-_Walters_437.jpg ] #History
An idea of the afterlife known as Elysium, also referred to as the Elysian Fields or Elysian Plains, evolved over time and was upheld by several Greek religious and philosophical sects and cults. It was once cut off from domain of Hades, the underworld of the Greeks. Only mortals who were linked to the gods and other heroes were permitted to cross the Styx River. Later, those selected by the gods, the pious, and the brave were added to the list of people who could enter. After passing away, individuals would stay at the Elysian Fields to live a blissful and happy afterlife and partake in whatever pleasures they had loved in life. Homer claimed that the Elysian Fields were situated by the Okeanos stream at the westernmost point of the planet. Elysium was also referred to as the Fortunate Isles or the Isles of the Blessed, and it was thought to be located in the western ocean at the edge of the earth during the time of the Greek poet Hesiod. The Theban poet Pindar would condense the Isles of the Blessed to a single island, describing it as having shady parks and people who enjoyed sports and music as their hobbies. The name of the monarch of Elysium differs depending on the author: Rhadamanthus with fair hair is said to live there by Homer in the Odyssey, while Pindar and Hesiod identify Cronus as the ruler
[Information and Image Credit : Elysium, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysium ]
[Image : Depiction of Ankunft im Elysium of Goethe by Franz Nadorp ]
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[Wikipedia-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goethe_Elysium_crop.jpg ]
#Mythology
The Hyperboreans were a legendary race described in Greek mythology as existing in the far north of the known world. Their name appears to have been derived from the Greek phrase ὑπέρ Βορέᾱ that means Beyond Boreas, also known as the God of the North Wind. However, other academics favor borrowing from a different Greek term - ὑπερφέρω, with a similar meaning. The Hyperboreans were thought to reside in a realm that was sunny, temperate, and blessed by the Gods, despite being in a region of the earth that was generally cold. They were depicted in several stories as residing north of the Riphean Mountains, which protected them from the chilly North Wind. The earliest tales describe them as favorite people of Apollo, and some ancient Greek writers believed the Hyperboreans to be the founders of the mythological temples of Apollo at Delos and Delphi. Later authors had different ideas about the existence and location of the Hyperboreans; some believed they were myths, while others made connections between them and actual people and locations in northern Eurasia, such as Britain, Scandinavia, or Siberia. The Hyperboreans came to represent remoteness and exoticism in literature from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. According to contemporary researchers, the Hyperborean myth is a synthesis of old utopian concepts such as legends about the edge of the earth, the cult of Apollo, and extravagant accounts of northern European events, such as the Arctic Midnight Sun. According to Pausanias, who called the area -- The Land of the Hyperboreans, Men living beyond the Home of Boreas, the Hyperboreans were thought to reside beyond the snow-covered Riphean Mountains
[Information and Image Credit : Hyperborea, Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperborea ]
[Image: An Arctic Continent on the Gerardus Mercator map of 1595. ]
[The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The work (Image) is in public domain in the United States as well. ]
[Wikipedia-Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mercator_Septentrionalium_Terrarum_descriptio.jpg ] #Mythology
Taranis, the thunder deity of Celtic mythology, was revered especially in Ireland, Gaul, Hispania and Britain, as well as in the Rhineland and Danube regions, among other places. The Roman poet Lucan listed Taranis, along with Esus and Toutatis, as a Celtic deity to whom sacrifices were made in his epic poem Pharsalia. In Greek mythology, Taranis and the Cyclops Brontes, sometimes known as Thunder, were both connected to the wheel. Many images of a bearded god holding a wheel in one hand and a thunderbolt in the other have been discovered in Gaul, where it appears that this deity became syncretized with Jupiter. An important emblem in historical Celtic polytheism was the wheel, notably the chariot wheel with six or eight spokes. This god was known as the wheel-god and was recognised as the sky-sun or thunder-god, whose name is documented as Taranis by Lucan. A wheel like this is also shown on many Celtic coins. Eight spokes can also be seen on the half-wheel depicted in the Gundestrup cauldron broken wheel panel. Since the Middle Bronze Age, figurative votive wheels have been donated at shrines, such as those in Alesia, cast in rivers, such the Seine, buried in tombs, or worn as amulets. These four-spoked wheel pendants from the Bronze Age are frequently recognised as solar symbols or sun crosses. The so-called Zierscheiben are items that can be compared to Celtic votive wheels or wheel-pendants. There are parallels between the association of the Sun with a wheel or chariot in Germanic, Greek, and Vedic mythology
[Information and Image Credit : Taranis , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranis ]
[Image : Taranis (Jupiter with wheel and thunderbolt), Le Chatelet, Gourzon, Haute-Marne, France ]
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#Mythology
An antique ceremonial site called Navan Fort is located close to Armagh, Northern Ireland. Tradition holds that it was the capital of Ulaidh and one of great imperial places of Gaelic Ireland . It is a sizable, circular hilltop enclosure, delineated by a bank and ditch, that contains ruins of ring barrow and a circular mound inside. Archaeological studies demonstrate that the location originally housed buildings, including a huge roundhouse-like structure that has been compared to a temple. This timber construction was filled with stones, burned down on purpose, and then covered with dirt in a religious act to form the mound that stands today. Navan is thought to have served as a pagan ritual location and a sacred area. It plays a significant role in Irish mythology, particularly in the Ulster Cycle tales.
The focal point of the greater Navan Complex is the Navan Fort. Eamhain Mhacha, derived from the Old Irish Emain Macha, is the Irish name for Navan Fort. The second element alludes to the goddess Macha, in whose honour adjacent Armagh, also known as Ard Mhacha, is named. The overall meaning of the name is not apparent, nevertheless. There are legends that attempt to explain the origin of the name. Isamnion was a location that Greek explorer Ptolemy observed in southeast Ulster in the second century AD. Gregory Toner has derived this word from Proto-Celtic *isa-mon, which means holy mound, and some academics think it alludes to Emain. Some people think it refers to a location along the coast. In the townland of Navan, there thus is the State Care Historic Monument known as Navan Fort, also known as Navan Rath. Flint tools and pottery fragments indicate activity at the site between 4000 and 2500 BCE during the Neolithic. At the western site, where the high mound currently sits, a ring of timber poles was built in the eighth century BC, or the Bronze Age. On the same site, a new wooden structure was erected in the fourth century BC, or the Iron Age. Over the following centuries, the building underwent a number of reconstructions. On the same site, a sizable roundhouse-like structure made of timber was erected in the first century BC. The purpose of the ritual deed that resulted in the building of the mound is unknown, and there are several competing theories. The timber construction might have just been intended as a temporary structure to be burned, or it might have served as a temple for a short period of time before being destroyed ritualistically.
One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World mentioned by Hellenic culture was the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. They were described as an amazing work of architecture, a vast green mountain made of mud bricks, with a rising succession of tiered gardens filled with a variety of trees, shrubs, and vines. It was said to have been constructed in the ancient Iraqi city of Babylon, close to the present-day town of Hillah. The term The Hanging Gardens comes from the Greek word κρεμαστό, which has a more expansive definition than the word -- hanging -- in modern English and refers to trees being planted on a higher structure like a terrace. The Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between 605 and 562 BC, is said to have constructed the Hanging Gardens alongside the enormous palace known as The Marvel of Mankind for his Median bride, Queen Amytis, who supposedly missed the lush hills and valleys of her native country. One of the Seven Wonders whose location has not been determined with certainty is the Hanging Gardens. The gardens are not mentioned in any extant Babylonian writings, and no unambiguous archaeological evidence has been discovered in Babylon. First, that they were entirely fictitious and that the depictions recorded in ancient Greek and Roman sources conveyed a romantic ideal of an eastern garden. They were also present in Babylon, but they were destroyed sometime in the first century AD. Third, the narrative alludes to a well-known garden that the Assyrian king Sennacherib (704-681 BC), who ruled from Nineveh on the Tigris River not far from the modern city of Mosul, constructed [Information and Image Credit : Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon , Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon ] [Image : A hand-colored engraving depicting the famous Hanging Gardens with the Tower of Babel in the background was likely created in the 19th century, following the first excavations in the Assyrian capitals.] [The Work (Image) is is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.jpg ] #Mythology
Vesta is the virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and family in Roman religion. Rarely did she appear in human form; instead, the flames of her temple in the Forum Romanum more frequently served as representations of her. Only the Vestal Virgins, who served as her priestesses and guarded specific precious things within her temple, prepared flour and sacred salt, or Mola Salsa, for official sacrifices, and maintained sacred fire of Vesta at the temple hearth, were allowed access to it. The Vestalia, which took place from June 7–15, was celebrated in honour of Vesta, who was revered as the protector of the Roman populace. Privilege matrons travelled barefoot through the city to the temple during the Vestalia, where they offered food sacrifices. A phallus that materialised in the flames of the sacred fire miraculously impregnated a virgin priestess, according to one of the few myths about Vesta and her priestesses. This was a manifestation of the goddess paired with a masculine supernatural entity. Romulus and Remus, as well as the kind-hearted king Servius Tullius, were conceived in this manner, according to various Roman legends. Vesta was one of the twelve most revered gods in the Roman pantheon, the Dii Consentes. She was the sister of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, and Ceres and the daughter of Saturn and Ops. Hestia is her equivalent in Greek. Vesta was an unclear deity at times because of her conflicting link with the phallus, despite being portrayed as a well-mannered divinity who never got involved in the disputes of other gods. She is regarded as the incarnation of Phallic Mother. She was not only the purest and most virginal of all the gods, but she also gave fertility blessings and was referred to as mother. The only story associated with Vesta, according to mythographers, was that she was one of the earliest gods and hence entitled to preferential devotion and sacrifices over all other gods. Vesta was rarely directly represented, unlike most gods, but she was nevertheless represented by her flame, the flaming stick, and a ceremonial phallus. Even though Vesta was the flame itself, the meaning of phallus in fertility cults and its association with the fire stick that ignited the sacred flame suggest that it may also represent the goddess herself. She was sometimes viewed as the embodiment of the fire stick, which was rotated phallically into a hollow piece of wood to kindle her flame
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[image : A rare depiction of Goddess Vesta in human form, as the central figure from the Lararium of a bakery at Pompeii, 1st century A.D. ]
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The history of visual art in Europe is included in what is known as Western art, or art of Europe. Between the Palaeolithic and the Iron Age, mobile Upper Palaeolithic rock and cave painting and petroglyph art were the origins of European prehistoric art. Often, written accounts of European art start with the 3rd millennium BCE Aegean civilizations. The Ancient Greek art, which Rome inherited and modified before spreading it throughout most of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia with the Roman Empire, does, however, reveal a constant trend of aesthetic evolution within Europe. Over the course of the next two thousand years, the influence of the art of the Classical period fluctuated, appearing to fade into obscurity in some areas of the Mediaeval period, reappearing in the Renaissance, experiencing a period of what some early art historians perceived as -- Decay -- during the Baroque period, reappearing in a more refined form in Neo-Classicism, and then resurfacing in Post-Modernism. Several stylistic periods that historically overlapped each other as various styles developed in various regions are used to categorise European art. Classical, Byzantine, Mediaeval, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical, Modern, Postmodern, and New European Painting are the major historical periods
[Information and Image Credit : Art_of_Europe , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Europe ]
[Image : Apelles painting Campaspe, an artwork which shows people surrounded by fine art; by Willem van Haecht; c. 1630; oil on panel; height: 104.9 cm, width: 148.7 cm; Mauritshuis (The Hague, the Netherlands) ]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer. The photographic reproduction is also considered to be in the public domain in the United States (Kindly Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia Source Image URL :
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Laelaps of Greek mythology was a canine hunter who was always successful. In a particular version of the legend surrounding Laelaps, it was a present given to Europa by Zeus. The hound was given to King Minos, who later gave it to the Athenian princess Procris as a reward. In a different telling of her tale, the Goddess Artemis gave her the animal as a gift. Cephalus, spouse of Procris, made the decision to use the dog to pursue the Teumessian fox, a fox that was impossible to capture. A dog who consistently got its prey and a fox that was elusive presented a conundrum. Zeus, bewildered by their disparate fates, hurled them both into the stars as the constellations Canis Major, or Laelaps, and Canis Minor, or the Teumessian fox, after continuing the pursuit
[Information and Image Credit : Laelaps_(mythology) , Wikipedia]
[Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laelaps_(mythology) ]
[Image : Laelaps, a depiction from Death of Procris in detail]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer. The photographic reproduction is also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. (Kindly Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piero_di_cosimo,_morte_di_procri_03.jpg ] #Mythology
In Greek mythology, Europa was the mother of King Minos of Crete and a Phoenician princess of Argive Greek descent. She may have inspired the name of the continent of Europe herself. It is thought that the legend of her kidnapping by Zeus in the form of a bull is a Cretan tale. Europa first appears in literature in the Iliad, which is generally regarded as having been written in the eighth century BCE. Another early mention of her can be found in a section of the Oxyrhynchus-found Hesiodic Catalogue of Women. According to the Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Zeus decided to seduce Europa because he was in love with her. He became a friendly white bull and blended in with the herds of her father. Europa saw the bull as she and her companions were collecting flowers, stroked his flanks, and eventually climbed up onto his back. Zeus seized the chance, dashed into the water, and swam to the island of Crete while carrying her on his back. Europa became the first queen of Crete after Zeus disclosed his actual identity. She received gifts from Zeus which included a necklace created by Hephaestus, the Greek God of Blacksmiths, a bronze robot guard named Talos, a javelin which never missed and a hound named Laelaps who never failed to catch his quarry. Later, Zeus reshaped the white bull into what is now known as the constellation Taurus in the heavens. The Raptus myth, also known as The Seduction of Europa and The Abduction of Europa, was incorporated into Roman mythology, although Zeus was replaced there with Jupiter!
[Information and Image Credit : Europa_(consort_of_Zeus), Wikipedia;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(consort_of_Zeus) ]
[Image : The Abduction of Europa by Rembrandt, 1632]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The author died in 1669, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The work (Image) is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1928. (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)]
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Roman Goddess Minerva is the patroness of the arts, commerce, and strategy as well as the giver of knowledge, justice, victory and the law. Unlike Mars, who is a patron of violence, Minerva is a supporter of calculated conflict. She was compared to the Greek goddess Athena by the Romans beginning in the second century BCE. Along with Jupiter and Juno, Minerva is one of the three Roman divinities that make up the Capitoline Triad. She was the virgin Goddess of weaving, crafts, music, poetry, medicine, and knowledge. She is typically seen with her sacred animal, an owl known as the Owl of Minerva, which represents her link with knowledge and wisdom. Occasionally, however, she is also pictured with the snake and the olive tree. Typical representations of Minerva include her being tall, having an athletic build, and wielding a spear in addition to donning armour. She is greatly recognized, venerated, and revered as the foremost Roman deity. According to the Greek tales surrounding Athena, she was born of Metis, who had been ingested by Jupiter, and emerged fully armed and armoured from the head of her father. The titaness Metis attempted to turn into another form in order to get away from Jupiter after they had intercourse. Then, Jupiter recalled the prophecy that stated his own kid would usurp him, just as he had Saturn and Caelus before him. Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after deceiving her into transforming into a fly out of fear that their kid would be male, would grow stronger than he was, and would govern the Heavens in his place. According to certain versions of the narrative, wisdom of Metis survived in a place where he still resided—i.e. mind of Jupiter. Others contend that she served only as a birthing vessel for Minerva. Jupiter was in excruciating pain because of the continuous ringing and thumping. After Vulcan split the head of Jupiter in to two with a hammer to ease the pain, Minerva emerged from the cleft, whole, as an adult and wearing full combat gear
[Information and Image Credit : Minerva, Wikipedia;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerva ; ]
[Image: Painting of Minerva paying visit to the Muses]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The author died in 1642, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 100 years or fewer. The Work (Image) is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well] #Mythology
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In Eastern Baltic mythology or Yotvingian mithology, the Latvian Lauma, Lithuanian Laumė, or Yotvingian Łauma is a fairy-like woodlands spirit and the protector spirit of orphans. Her empathy for human misery led her to come to earth to experience our fate after being a sky spirit in the past. The oldest deities in Lithuanian mythology are called Laumės. These goddesses-representation may have developed during the Mesolithic era, which succeeded the Ice Age. Laumės could take the appearance of mares, female goats, bears, or dogs, among other animals. Later, took on an anthropomorphic aspect, typically having bird claws for feet and looking like ladies with a head of goat or lower body. Additional variations included half-mare, like centaurs, or half-dog or like half-humans. Laumės frequently possessed just one eye, like cyclops. They also possessed huge breasts with stone nipples, which were known as nipples of Laumės because pieces of belemnitida were often found on the ground. They were like the Lamia of Greek mythology in that they could tickle or tweak people to death and then devour their corpses. The Lithuanian legend also said that maintained enormous cows that anyone could milk. Pieces of belemnitida were thought to be the remains of udders of cows until they perished in extremely cold temperatures. Iron tools were feared by the Laumės. One could indeed think of Laumės as atmospheric deities. It is also stated that Laumės was a lovely goddess with a diamond throne who resided in the clouds. According to some tales, Laumės was the bride of thunder god Perkūnas, but their union was never consummated because Laumės fell in love with the Moon, who was regarded as a male god in Lithuania
[Information Credit : Lauma, Wikipedia;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauma ]
[Image : Artistic Imagination of Lauma and consequent Derivative Art] #Mythology
The Temple of Diana, often referred to as the Temple of Artemis or Artemision, was a Greek temple devoted to a prehistoric, regional form of the goddess Artemis. It could be found in Ephesus. The Ionic immigration occurred several years after the earliest iteration of the temple, a Bronze Age temenos. About 550 BC, Chersiphron and his son Metagenes, a Cretan architect, began to rebuild it in a grander style. Croesus of Lydia provided the funding, and it took ten years to finish the project. An arsonist destroyed this rendition of the temple in 356 BC. According to the list of Antipater of Sidon, the Seven Wonders of the World, the next, greatest, and last iteration of the temple was financed by the Ephesians themselves. It is thought to be older than the Didyma oracular shrine to Apollo. Leleges and Lydians are thought to have lived in the city prior to the Ionic period. The first temenos at Ephesus was credited by the ancient Greek poet and scholar Callimachus to the Amazons, legendary warrior-women whose religious practises, in his imagination, already revolved on an image or bretas of Artemis, their matron goddess. According to Pausanias, the temple existed even before the Amazons. The peripteral temple at Ephesus is the earliest example of its kind on coast of Asia Minor and may be the oldest Greek temple ever to be encircled by colonnades. A flood in the seventh century BC wrecked the temple and covered the original clay floor with more than half a metre of sand and flotsam. The remains of an ivory plaque depicting a griffin and the Tree of Life, as well as few drilled tear-shaped amber drops, were found among the flood wreckage. Croesus, who established empire of Lydia and ruled Ephesus, was at least partially responsible for funding the construction of the second great temple. It began to be planned and built in 550 BC. The temple burned down in 356 BC. According to a number of traditions, Herostratus committed this heinous crime of arson in an effort to gain glory at all costs. This is how the term — Herostratic Fame — came to be used to define his desire for recognition. The Ephesians condemned the offender to death for this crime and barred anybody from mentioning his name ever. According to Greek and Roman legacy, Alexander the Great was born about the time the temple was destroyed. Plutarch says that Goddess Artemis was too busy with birth of Alexander to put out the fire in her temple, but he does not say what caused it. The Ephesians politely declined offer of Alexander to pay for the reconstruction of the temple, arguing that it would be wrong for one god to construct a temple for another, and they ultimately reconstructed it after his death at their own expense. Construction began around 323 BC and lasted for a long time. The third temple, which was 450 feet long, 225 feet wide, and 60 feet high with more than 127 columns, was bigger than the second temple. In early Christian records of Ephesus, this new restoration is mentioned several times and had endured for 600 years. The Temple was eventually demolished or destroyed by 401 AD [Information and Image Credit :: Temple_of_Artemis, Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis ] [Image : The imagined representation of the Temple of Artemis in a 16th-century hand-colored engraving by Martin Heemskerck shows how well-known it was throughout the Renaissance Period] [The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Image is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well] Wikipedia-Source-Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temple_of_Artemis.jpg ] #Mythology
About 435 BC, the Greek sculptor Phidias created the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, a huge sitting statue that was around 41 feet tall. It was placed in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Zeus, who reigns as monarch of the Gods of Mount Olympus, is the sky and thunder deity of classical Greek native religion. The statue was an ivory and gold chryselephantine sculpture mounted on a wooden base. Zeus occupied a painted cedarwood throne that was adorned with ebony, ivory, precious stones, and gold. It belonged to the list of the seven ancient world wonders. There are contradictory reports of the date and circumstances of the loss of statue and destruction before the end of the fifth century AD. Only accounts and depictions of it on ancient Greek coins provide information about its form. In the latter half of the fifth century BC, the Eleans, guardians of the Olympic Games, commissioned the statue of Zeus for their recently built Temple of Zeus. The Eleans hired sculptor Phidias, who had previously created the enormous statue of Athena Parthenos at the Parthenon, in an effort to surpass their rival Athenian society. The statue took up half of the aisle in the temple that was created to hold it. The sculpture of Zeus was chryselephantine, or composed of ivory and gold panels above a wooden framework. Although there are recognisable but only roughly accurate copies on coins from the adjacent city of Elis, on Roman coins, and on engraved jewels is there. No replica in marble or bronze has survived. The figure wore a gilded glass robe decorated with carved animals and lilies and was capped with a wreath of olive sprays. Its left hand held a sceptre inlaid with numerous metals, supporting an eagle, while its right hand held a tiny chryselephantine statue of the crowned Nike, Goddess of Triumph. The throne was embellished with gold, precious stones, ebony, and ivory and had painted figures and wrought images. The golden sandals of Zeus were propped up on a footstool that was relief-carved with an Amazonomachy. Painted screens blocked the entrance beneath the throne
[Information Credit : Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia, Wikipedia ;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia ]
[Image: Olympian Zeus in the sculptured antique art of Quatremère de Quincy (1815) ]
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The Colossus of Rhodes was a sculpture of the Greek Sun God Helios that Chares of Lindos erected in the city of Rhodes on the same-named Greek island around 280 BC. It was built to commemorate the successful defence of Rhodes City against an attack by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who had sieged the city for a year with a sizable army and navy. It is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Colossus was the highest statue in the ancient world, standing roughly 70 cubits, or 108 feet high, or about the height of the modern Statue of Liberty from foot to crown, according to most contemporaneous sources. Parts of it were still surviving after the earthquake in 226 BC, but it ultimately fell. The Rhodians did not rebuild it once more in line with a specific oracle. The Rhodians were referred to as Colossaeans because they built the statue on the island, according to the Suda, a Byzantine encyclopaedia of the ancient Mediterranean world published in the 10th century. Early in the fourth century BC, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, an opponent of Ptolemy I of Egypt, launched a huge invasion, which Rhodes, along with Ptolemy I of Egypt, stopped. Demetrius, son of Antigonus, and his army withdrew the siege in 304 BC after a relief force of ships sent by Ptolemy arrived, leaving most of their siege equipment behind. The Rhodians decided to construct a massive statue of their patron god, Helios, with the 300 talents they received from the sale of the equipment they left behind as a token of their victory. Chares, a native of Lindos on Rhodes who had experience with large-scale statues, was given the task of overseeing the construction. Around 292 BC, construction commenced. According to ancient stories, which vary somewhat, the building was constructed using iron tie rods to which brass plates were attached to form the skin. The different weapons that army of Demetrius left behind were used to reforge a large portion of the iron and bronze, and it is possible that the second siege tower, which had been abandoned, was used as scaffolding around the lower floors during building [Information and Image Credit :: Colossus_of_Rhodes , Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes ] [Image : The Colossus as depicted in a Martin Heemskerck engraving from the 16th century, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.] [The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The photographic reproduction is also considered to be in the public domain in the United States. (Kindly Also Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colossus_of_Rhodes.jpg ] #Mythology
Aristotle established the Peripatetic School, a philosophical institution, in the Lyceum of Classical Athens in 335 BC. Members of this unofficial organisation engaged in philosophical and scientific research. The school started to collapse about the middle of the third century BC, and it was not until the Roman era that it began to flourish again. The word Peripatetic is a transliteration of the ancient Greek word περιπατητικός which means -- Of Walking or Given to Walking About. The Peripatetic school was originally referred to as the Peripatos. Because of the peripatoi, or Walkways, of the Lyceum, where the members congregated, the school so acquired its name. Aristotle, unlike Plato, was not an Athens resident and was consequently unable to hold land; as a result, he and his associates met on the Lyceum grounds, much as earlier philosophers like Socrates had done. The school also started to be recognized to as the Lyceum because of its connection to the gymnasium. The Peripatetic assemblies were presumably run less formally in the beginning than the term School implies; there was presumably no established curriculum, requirements for pupils, or even membership fees. Aristotle did give lectures and classes there, but he also collaborated with other students on philosophical and scientific research. A lot of the works that have survived in name of Aristotle appear to be based on the lectures he delivered at the university. The goal of the school, at least in his days, was to examine philosophical and scientific hypotheses rather than advance any particular belief; those in charge of the school collaborated on an equal basis. Aristotle left Athens perhaps soon after the passing of Alexander the Great in June 323 BC to avoid persecution by anti-Macedonian forces in Athens because of his connections to Macedonia. Theophrastus succeeded Aristotle as head of the school after his passing in 322 BC. Strato of Lampsacus, who emphasised the naturalistic components of philosophy of Aristotle and embraced a sort of atheism, was the most notable member of the school after Theophrastus. The Peripatetic school experienced a downturn following Strato. All the philosophical schools of Athens suffered severe disruptions during the siege of the city in 86 BC by Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the Lyceum ceased to be a functioning organisation. Strangely, it seems as though this incident has given the Peripatetic school fresh life. The writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus were carried back to Rome by Sulla, where they served as the foundation for a new compilation of works of Aristotle put together by Andronicus of Rhodes, which is what is now known as the Corpus Aristotelicum.
[Information and Image Credit : Peripatetic_school, Wikipedia;
Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripatetic_school ]
[Image: Aristotles School, a painting from the 1880s by Gustav Adolph Spangenberg]
[The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, public domain work of art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The work is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spangenberg_-_Schule_des_Aristoteles.jpg ] #Philosophy#philosophical
The feminine morning star deity Aušrinė i.e. relative to Dawning, is comparable to Venus in Lithuanian mythology. She is an opposite reflection of Vakarinė, the evening star. Her worship is linked to that of the Vedic Ushas, the Latvian Auseklis, the Greek Eos, the Roman Aurora, and the Indo-European morning goddess Hausōs. The Goddess of elegance, romance, and youthfulness, Aušrinė is associated with health, resurrection, and fresh starts. As per tradition, Aušrinė and her attendant Tarnaitis, who is most likely Mercury, prepare Carefully the path of Sun every morning. In the evening, Vakarinė gets the bed of Saulė the Sun ready. The relationship between Saulė and Aušrinė is complicated. In some cases Saulė is described as the mother of Aušrinė, Vakarinė and other planets like Indraja i.e. Jupiter , Sėlija i.e. Saturn, Žiezdrė i.e. Mars, Vaivora i.e. Mercury and even Žemyna i.e. Earth. Her name is the solution to a conundrum concerning dew in a traditional Latvian folktale. The Moon notices the lost keys of a girl or spreads-out her pearl necklace in this puzzle, but the Sun takes them. A well-known legend relates how Mėnulis, the Moon, fell in love with the lovely Aušrinė, cheated on his wife Saulė, and was punished by Perkūnas, the Thunder-God. The competition between Saulė and Aušrinė is also depicted in various stories, with Saulė being envious of the beauty and brilliance of Aušrinė. Despite the infidelity or antagonism, Aušrinė continues to be devoted to Saulė and provide morning assistance. In some tales, Aušrinė is referred to as Karaliūnė and Dangaus Kariūnė, or Queen of Heaven [Information Credit : Aušrinė, Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au%C5%A1rin%C4%97 ] [Image: AI-Based Artistic Imagination of Aušrinė and consequent Derivative Art] #Mythology
The Kushan Empire was ruled by Vima Kadphises from roughly 113 to 127 CE. He was the father of Kanishka and the son of Vima Takto, in accordance with the Rabatak inscription. The Rabatak inscription, written by Kanishka, describes the relationship between Vima Kadphises and subsequent Kushan emperors. Kanishka adds himself to the litany of kings who ruled before him, including Kujula Kadphises, his great-grandfather, Vima Taktu, his grandpa, and Vima Kadphises, his father. The majority of the coins of Vima include Hindu depictions of Shiva, either with or without his bull. Shiva is frequently shown with a Trishul or Trident. He was the first Kushan emperor to add gold coins to the already-existing copper and silver ones. The majority of the gold appears to have come from commerce with the Roman Empire. Roman coins from the first century equate to the standard gold weight of about eight grammes. Gold bullion of Rome would be melted down and used to create the double stater, stater, and quarter starting or dinara coins for the Kushan mints. Being the hub of trade between the Han Dynasty of China, Central Asia, and Alexandria and Antioch in the West, the Kushan Empire enjoyed prosperity from the time of Vima onwards, as evidenced by the use of gold. The Silk Road was preserved and guarded by the Kushan, allowing trade in silk, spices, and textiles between China, India, and the West. In particular, a lot of products were transported to the Roman Empire via ships, resulting in a flow of Greek wine and gold coinage. As evidenced by the diversity and high calibre of the artefacts discovered in Bagram, Afghanistan, the Kushan summer capital, works of art were also imported from all corners. The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara demonstrates how strongly artistic syncretism was encouraged. [Information and Image Credit : Vima_Kadphises , Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vima_Kadphises ] [Image :: Vima Kadphises with Ithyphallic Shiva ; Wikipedia Image-Attribution : Classical Numismatic Group, Inc http://www.cngcoins.com/ ] [Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported ; (Kindly Relate to Individual Source Image URLs for More Usage Properties)] [Image-License-Link :: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en [Wikipedia-Source Image URL :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vima_Kadphises_with_ithyphallic_Shiva.jpg ]
The ancient Greek goddess Athena or Athene, often known by the appellation Pallas, was an assumption with the Roman goddess Minerva and is known for her associations with knowledge, war, and craftsmanship. Athena was revered as the protector and benefactor of many Greek cities, especially Athens, from where she most certainly derived her name. She is honoured with the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens. She frequently uses owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion as her emblems. She is typically shown carrying a spear and wearing a headgear in artwork. From her beginnings as an Aegean palace goddess, Athena had a strong connection to the metropolis. She went by the names Polias and Poliouchos, both of which are derived from the Greek word Polis, which means city-state. Her temples were often found atop the fortified acropolis in the middle of the city. She is honoured with various temples and monuments, including the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens. Athena was also known as Ergane, the goddess of weaving and craft. She was a goddess of war as well and was thought to have led warriors into battle under the name Athena Promachos. The Panathenaia, which was observed in midsummer during the month of Hekatombaion and was the most significant celebration on the Athenian calendar, was her primary festival in Athens. According to Greek mythology, Athena was said to have been conceived from the brow of her father Zeus. In some interpretations of the narrative, Athena is born from the brow of Zeus through parthenogenesis without a mother. She actively participates in the Iliad, helping the Achaeans, and she serves as the divine advisor of Odysseus in the Odyssey. Athena is claimed to have participated in a weaving contest with the mortal Arachne in later texts by the Roman poet Ovid, after which Athena changed Arachne into the first spider. Athena has frequently served as a motif of liberty and democracy employed by Western painters and allegorists!
[Information and Image Credit : Athena , Wikipedia; Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena ]
[Image : Statue of Pallas Athena in front of the Austrian Parliament Building. Athena has been used throughout Western history as a symbol of freedom and democracy. Wikipedia-Image-Author : Gryffindor] [The copyright holder of the work, released the work into the public domain. This applies worldwide. The copyright holder of this work allows anyone to use it for any purpose including unrestricted redistribution, commercial use, and modification. Kindly Relate to Individual Source Image URLs for More Usage Properties)]
[Wikipedia-Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Austria_Parlament_Athena_bw.jpg ]
#Mythology
Greek mythology describes Cassandra, also known as Kassandra or Alexandra, as a Trojan priestess who served the God Apollo and was doomed by Him to make prophesies that came true but were never believed. Her name is sometimes used rhetorically now to denote someone whose accurate predictions—often of imminent disaster—are not taken seriously. Cassandra was the child of King Priam of Troy and Queen Hecuba. Hector, a Greek-Trojan battle hero, was her older brother. She was admired by the deity Apollo, who tried to win her affection by using His gift of prophecy, according to the earlier and more popular versions of the narrative. She promised Him favours, according to Aeschylus, but withdrew her word after accepting the present. Being frustrated by his inability to withdraw a supernatural power, Apollo added the curse that no one would take her forecasts seriously. According to various authors, like Hyginus and Pseudo-Apollodorus, Cassandra did not break her pledge to Apollo; rather, the gift of foresight was intended to tempt her into a romantic relationship; the curse was only added when the desired outcome of the God was not achieved. Later tales, on the other hand, have her dozing off at a temple where she was given the ability to hear the future by snakes licking or whispering into her ears
[Information-Credit : Cassandra, Wikipedia: Wikipedia-Link::
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra ]
[Image: Cassandra by Evelyn De Morgan (1898, London); the Image shows Cassandra in front of a flaming Troy, her disordered hair signifying the insanity the Trojans attributed to her.] [The author died in 1919, so this work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Work (Image) is believed to be in Public Domain in the United States as well. (Please Relate to Source Image-URL for More Image Usage Property and License) Image-Source-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cassandra1.jpeg ] #Mythology
The Baltic Goddess of Fate is known as Laima. She was a benefactor of expectant mothers and was connected to delivery, matrimony, and death. Comparable to the Norse Norns or the Greek Moirai, Laima and her sisters, Kārta and Dēkla, were a triad of destiny goddesses in Latvian mythology. Laima, who is far more well-liked, decides the destiny of a person in the end. Although they all performed similar duties, Laima is the Goddess of fortune and is more associated with women and childbearing, Dēkla is in custody of the children, and Kārta has control over the life of an adult. Deity Dalia, also related to Fate, and Giltin, The Reaper, are two further similar deities. Lakshmi, the Hindu Goddess, shares similarities with Laima in her roles. The above mentioned Three Goddesses are together defined as three Laimas in contemporary Dievturi, signifying that they are the same divinity in three separate manifestations. Ritual offerings of hens, sheep, towels or other woven items to Laima were part of the birth rites at the end of the nineteenth century. The rite, which was carried out in a Sauna (a kind of room or building), was only open to female participants. Laima shared a connection with Gegutė, or the cuckoo, which the Greimas believed to be a different deity. Others believe she is also a manifestation of Laima. Time and the progression of the seasons were under the control of Gegut. The frequency of her calls was thought to indicate how long someone was left to live with. She also prophesize how an individual would spend the rest of the year in the spring; for instance, a person would be impoverished for the rest of the year if he had no money on him when he heard the cuckoo. The linden tree is a revered symbolic tree associated with Goddess Laima.
[Information-Credit : Laima , Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laima ]
[Image: An Artistic Depiction of Goddess Laima] #Mythology
The Divine Manifestation of Light and Spring, the very embodiment of fertility, and the guardian protector of horses and bees in Latvian Mythology is known as Ūsiņš. Among Latvian deities it is one of the few Deities for which historical evidences can be inferred that is essentially reliable testimony. Summer is officially heralded with Ūsiņš Day as they gift verdant fields and trees with green leaves. The first time that men drove horses to Piegula was on Ūsiņi. The ornamental sign for Ūsiņš resembles two letter E placed with their backs to one another. The most popular glove adornment is this symbol. According to a myth, these gloves, known as Atslēgaiņi, bring their wearer good fortune on the road. A foal is the most significant representation of Ūsiņš Day, which has multiple meanings. Because sexual power is equivalent to energy to procreate, it is both a representation of power of Dievas and human energy. A yellow foal is a symbolic representation of the energy of the sun. With Ūsiņš it is also connected to another image: the golden grass snake. A snake is a metaphor for the movement of energy. It is proposed that Ūsiņš is a typological member of the class of heavenly deities, and that because of certain characteristics, he can be identified as the deity of light. He is a morning and evening star-related cosmic deity, if this perception of him is accurate. The Greek Dioskouri or Sons of Zeus, who also transport the Sun like Ūsiņš, are comparable to Ūsiņš because they share traits with the Indian deity Ashvini. Another similarity is that both Asvins are referred to as Divo napata, or Sons of Dyaus, and Ūsiņš is also known as Son of Dievs. Farmers fully entrust him with custody of their horses, giving them to him. Folk ballads state that Ūsiņš personally has horses and takes excellent care of them. Ūsiņš is the God of Light, hence horses were used to deliver the Sun. On the day of the horse market, when they were bought and sold, Ūsiņš Day was observed. Ūsiņš Day was greeted by a rumbling and a lot of noise, which is consistent with the springtime thundering character! [Information Credit : Ūsiņš , Wikipedia] [Wikipedia-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AAsi%C5%86%C5%A1 ] [Image: Artistic Depiction of Horses Release for the First Pieguļa after Winter on the Ūsiņš Day] #Mythology
The God of Light and Spring, the embodiment of fertility, and the protector of horses and bees in Latvian Mythology is known as Ūsiņš. It is one of the few Latvian deities from which historical evidence can be inferred that is essentially reliable testimony. Summer officially starts with Ūsiņš Day as they gift verdant fields and trees with green leaves. The first time that men drove horses to Piegula was on Ūsiņi. The ornamental sign for Ūsiņš resembles two letter E placed with their backs to one another. The most popular glove adornment is this symbol. According to a myth, these gloves, known as Atslēgaiņi, bring their wearer good fortune on the road. The most significant representation of Ūsiņš Day is a foal, which has multiple meanings. Because sexual power is equivalent to creative energy, it is both a representation of power of Dievas and human energy. A yellow foal represents the energy of the sun.. With Ūsiņš it is also connected to another image: the golden grass snake. A snake is a metaphor for the movement of energy. It is proposed that Ūsiņš is a typological member of the class of heavenly deities, and that because of certain characteristics, he can be identified as the deity of light. He is a morning and evening star-related cosmic deity, if this perception of him is accurate. The Greek Dioskouri or Sons of Zeus, who also transport the Sun like Ūsiņš, are comparable to Ūsiņš because they share traits with the Indian deity Ashvini. Another similarity is that both Asvins are referred to as Divo napata, or Sons of Dyaus, and Ūsiņš is also known as Son of Dievs. Farmers fully entrust him with custody of their horses, giving them to him. Folk ballads state that Ūsiņš personally has horses and takes excellent care of them. Ūsiņš is the God of Light, hence horses were used to deliver the Sun. On the day of the horse market, when they were bought and sold, Ūsiņš Day was observed. Ūsiņš Day was greeted by a rumbling and a lot of noise, which is consistent with the springtime thundering character. [Information and Image Credit : Ūsiņš , Wikipedia] [Image : On Ūsiņš Day horses are released for the first Pieguļa after Winter] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic ; Wikipedia-Image-Author : böhringer friedrich ; (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [License-Link :
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/deed.en ]
[Wikipedia Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pferde01.JPG ]
A historic wool wall hanging known as the Sampul tapestry was discovered in the Tarim Basin nearby the ancient kingdom of Khotan. The item is linked to the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom by its numerous Hellenistic period characteristics, which include a Greek centaur and diadem. It might be a Yuezhi soldier from the first century CE, dressed in a crimson jacket and pants. As another possibility, the soldier or monarch, may be a Greco-Bactrian, a Saka who had undergone Hellenization, or a Greco-Saka military nobleman. The complete tapestry is 230 cm long and 48 cm broad. The face portion of the warrior measures 48 by 52 cm and the centaur portion measures 45 by 55 cm. The fabric that was found merely makes up the left ornamental border of a much larger wall hanging. It is made of 24 threads of various colours and is made of wool. A guy with Caucasoid traits, including blue eyes, is shown on the tapestry with a centaur. The soldier would be around six times as tall as the centaur if all missing fabric were taken into account. A spear in his hand and a dagger placed on his belt help to identify the individual as a warrior. He is dressed in a tunic with rosette patterns. His headdress might be a diadem, which was depicted on Macedonian and other ancient Greek currency and served as a sign of kingship in the Hellenistic era. The centaur is performing a horn and is covered in a cloak and cape. He is surrounded with a floral adornment in the form of a diamond. The antiquity of the material is questionable because there has been a lot of theft at the site. Dates ranging from the third century BC to the fourth century AD have been given to it. Even though the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia has been mentioned as a potential location, the exact location of the tapestry is unknown. Western embroidery techniques were utilised to create the tapestry, which has more than 24 strands in various colours. The cloak and hood of the centaur are a central Asian adaptation of the Greek design. Another thing that sets him apart from the Greek archetypes is that he performs the horn. The lapel features of the warrior a central Asian flower and diamond pattern. A few elements, especially the animal head on the weapon of the soldier, point to the northern Iranian kingdom of Parthia as the place of origin of the tapestry. Rome has additionally been suggested as a potential source. Another theory is that it is locally produced because the Tang annal New Book of Tang reported that Khotanese locals were skilled in weaving textiles and making tapestries when Emperor Wu of Han, who reigned from 141 to 87 BC, introduced the Silk Road to Khotan in the first century BC. The tapestry might have been created about a century before Wudi led the Han Chinese to conquer the Tarim Basin. Loulan has also produced Hellenistic tapestries, suggesting a shared cultural heritage with Khotan. The presence of the tapestry likely to imply that interactions between the Hellenistic kingdoms of Central Asia and the Tarim Basin, at the frontier of the Chinese realm, began somewhere around the third century BC. [Information and Image Credit : Sampul_tapestry, Wikipedia] [Image : Probable Yuezhi soldier in red jacket and trousers, in the Sampul tapestry. Embroidered in Hellenistic style, with motif of a centaur, 1st century AD, Sampul, Ürümqi Xinjiang Region Museum ] [The work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 70 years or fewer] [The work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1927. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image-Link : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UrumqiWarrior.jpg ]
Scythian-Metallurgy :: The Scythian people of the Pontic-Caspian steppe practised metallurgy extensively from the seventh to the third century BC. Despite the fact that Scythian society was largely centred upon a nomadic, mobile existence, the people could practise metallurgy and make metal artefacts. Since then, several Scythian metalworking pieces have been discovered among other populations. Previous to the 7th Century BC, during which they were first documented in historical texts, the Scythians developed as a people. The Pontic Steppes, Caucasus and Central Asia were all home to many diverse tribal tribes that made up the Scythian civilisation. Despite being essentially a nomadic people, the Scythians created a number of villages throughout their region. As a result, a sedentary civilization and the corresponding growth of trade skills, including metallurgy, were able to flourish. The inhabitants of Iran and China are most likely the source of Scythian knowledge of metalworking, which expanded through trade routes and reached the steppes during the second and first millennia BC. Bronzeworking was the main focus of early Scythian metallurgy because their neighbours had already adopted it to a large extent. According to some theories, the raw materials utilised in Scythian metallurgy during the Bronze Age originated in the Minusinsk Basin of Siberia. Scythian access to this area propelled their later centuries of advancement. Scythians were frequently engaged by Near Eastern countries in the eighth century BC. These war veterans may have carried ironworking skills back to their homeland, and by the beginning of the sixth century BC, the practise was common on the Pontic steppes. Gold and copper works were also practised in Scythian culture in addition to the production of bronze and iron; the Greek historian Herodotus noted this in his commentary on the Scythian people. Because metalworkers were required to provide the tangible items that supported the Scythian way of life, metallurgy played a significant role in Scythian civilization. Because they lived in a nomadic culture with wide borders and frequently carried out raids on their neighbours, the Scythians needed metal weapons, especially iron swords and bronze arrowheads. It has been hypothesised that the employment of styled metal ornaments by the Scythians during these battles may have been inspired by their adversaries. Furthermore, all social classes sought after jewellery and other embellishments, as evidenced by the finding of metal ornamentation in the Scythian-attributed burial sites. The frequent deployment of metal belts was one distinctive feature of Scythian attire. Numerous other indications of Scythian metalworking can be found at locations associated with the people. The remains of metalworking activities have been discovered at a number of significant Scythian archaeological sites; at one town near the Dnieper, slag and the remains of blast furnaces have been discovered, suggesting the presence of a sizable metallurgical centre. The discovery of remnants of metalworking workshops and equipment as a result of excavations at more Scythian settlements adds credence to the idea that these people were organised crafters. Notably well-known for the superiority of their copper craftsmanship was Scythian metalwork. The Scythian cavalry was provided with portable moulds to make arrowheads during battle. The metallurgy of the North Caucasian Koban people was also impacted by Scythian metalworking. [Information and Image Credit : Scythian_metallurgy, Wikipedia] [Image : Fourth Century BCE-dated Scythian Comb] [The Work (Image) is a faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, Public Domain Work of Art. The Work (Image) is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 70 years or fewer. The Image is in Public Domain in the United States As Well] [Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scythian_comb.jpg ]
When the Greek cities of the coast were thriving and the Scythian realm of the Pontic steppe reached its height in the 4th century BC, the relationship between the two civilizations were largely harmonious. Some Scythians had already begun to settle as permanent agricultaralists in the lower echelons of the Dnipro river since the late 5th century The agrarian Scythians settled in several settlements on the left side of the Dnister estuary and in modest communities on the lower banks of the Dnipro and tiny steppe rivers. BC, and this practise amplified all across the 4th century BC, with the pastoralist Scythians. While the usage of Greek commodities by the countryside steppe people had reduced since the 5th century BC, the Scythians were capturing territories from them in the territory around what today is Boryspil during this time. In addition time, there was elevated demand for the merchandise of the Greek colonies, such as trade goods, grain and fish, as a result of which the interactions between the Pontic and Aegean regions, and particularly with Athens, were flourishing. The Scythians continued to have access to plenty of grasslands and were still able to maintain their towns. In fact, according to archaeological data, the inhabitants of Crimea, which was primarily made up of Scythians at the time, expanded by 6 times during this period. Leucon employed Scythians in his military, and the Bosporan nobleman had connections with the Scythians, possibly including nuptial relations between Scythian and Bosporan aristocracy. The rule of the Spartocid dynasty in the Bosporan Kingdom was also advantageous to the Scythians underneath the norms of Spartocus II and Paerisades I. Ateas, who succeeded the Scythian monarch buried at Agighiol and may have been his son, was the most well-known Scythian ruler of the 4th century BC. His reign began in the early 360 BC. Theinhabitants of Ateas, along with their households and livestock, were living on the territories south of the Danube at this time, when Scythian tribes already had made permanent settlements. The Getae moved to the north across the Danube and settled in the region between the Dnipro and the Prut rivers, although it appears that the Scythians ceded some territory on both sides of the Danube as a result of loss and death of Ateas. The Scythian capital of the Kamianka site remained in existence as prosperously and widely as it had before the defeat of Ateas, and the Scythian ruling elite continued interring their dead in lavish barrow tombs as before. These adjustments thus had no effect on Scythian authority because the Scythians still nomadized and buried their dead in rich kurgans in the regions to the north-west of the Black Sea between the Dnipro and the Prut. A bad time for the Scythians occurred at the close of the 4th century BC when the Scythian battle with Macedon also happened to coincide with climate shifts and economic troubles brought on by overgrazed meadows. The Scythian kingdom gradually came to an end about the second century BCE as a consequence of the Sarmatian, Getic, Celtic and Germanic incursions, and the Scythian kurgans vanished from the Pontic territory. [Information and Image Credit : Scythia, Wikipedia] [Image : The Scythian kingdom in the Pontic steppe at its maximum Extent] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International; Image Author: Antiquistik; (Please Also Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [License-Link: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ ] [Original Source Image URL:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scythian_kingdom_in_the_Pontic_steppe_-_detailed.jpg ]
Saturnalia, a celebration and holiday celebrated in ancient Rome in honour of the deity Saturn, began on December 17 and later extended through December 23. The festival was marked by a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturn in the Roman Forum, a public banquet, followed by private gift-giving, nonstop partying and a carnival-like ambience that defied Roman social standards: gambling was allowed and masters served their servants at the table because it was regarded as a period of liberty for both servants and freedmen. In Roman mythology, Saturn was a deity of agriculture who was thought to have ruled the globe during the Golden Age, when people relished natural richness of the earth in a carefree condition. The celebrations of Saturnalia were meant to represent the circumstances of the long-gone mythological era. The Kronia, which fell between mid-July and mid-August on the Attic calendar, was the Greek counterpart and was observed on the twelfth day of the month of Hekatombaion. A typical practise was the nomination of a — King of the Saturnalia, who would issue directives to be obeyed and oversee the revelry. Typically, funny presents or tiny wax or porcelain figurines called Sigillaria served as the gifts that were given and received. The freedom linked with Saturnalia, according to the Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry, represented the — Freeing of Souls into Immortality. Saturnalia may well have impacted a number of the customs connected to subsequent midwinter holidays in western Europe, especially those connected to Christmas, the Feast of the Holy Innocents and Epiphany. According to one of the explanations of the work of Macrobius, Saturnalia is a festival of light preceding the winter solstice, with the numerous lights present signifying the pursuit of knowledge and truth. The Dies Natalis Solis Invicti or the —Birthday of the Unconquerable Sun, was observed on December 25 in the later Roman Empire as a celebration of the return of light and the beginning of a new year. [Information and Image Credit : Saturnalia, Wikipedia] [Image: Saturnalia (1783) by Antoine Callet] [Image Availed Under : Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication (Please Relate to Source-Image URL for more Usage Property)] [License-Link :
https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en ]
[Source-Image-URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saturnalia_by_Antoine_Callet.jpg ] #Mythology
One of the most well-known Bogatyrs or legendary warriors in Russian mythology is Dobrynya Nikitich. Although made up, this figure is based on Dobrynya, a historical warrior who commanded the forces of Svyatoslav the Great and educated his son Vladimir the Great. Dobrynya accomplishing the tasks given to him by prince Vladimir is the focus of many byliny. Dobrynya is frequently presented as conducting delicate and delicate missions while being intimate to the ruling household. Dobrynya appears to be a dignitary who represents the noble class of soldiers. He competes in wrestling, swimming and archery professionally. He is renowned for his politeness and shrewdness and performs the gusli and tafl. The bylina begins with mother of Dobrynya admonishing her son to stay away from the Saracen Mountains, not step on young dragons, refrain from freeing Russian prisoners and refrain from taking a dip in the Puchai River. Dobrynya accomplished all tasks against the will of his mother. He met a dragon with twelve trunks while taking a swim in the Puchai River. Dobrynya, who was without arms, helpless and in need, found a hat from the Greek land and used it to slay the dragon. The dragon, who appeared to be a female, begged Dobrynya not to slaughter her and the two agreed to refrain from attacking one another. Right after this, the dragon violated her word and went to Kiev, where she kidnapped Zabava Putyatishna, the niece of Prince Vladimir. Dobrynya came to Kiev and Prince Vladimir gave him orders to save his niece. Dobrynya stomped on the dragon babies while freeing several prisoners, although one of them bit into the leg of his horse and rendered it incapacitated. Dobrynya recalled the miracle whip, whose lashes gave the horse new life and allowed him to run free. The dragon now came out indignant about the deaths of her young and she was not going to give Zabava up easily. For three days, Dobrynya battled the dragon in the Saracen Mountains. He was ready to give up and depart on the third day, but a revelation from heaven encouraged him to continue fighting for three more hours. Dobrynya spent three days wallowing in the pool since the blood of the dragon did not permeate the soil. He was eventually instructed to pierce his spear and utter an invocation by a voice from Heaven. Zabava was now saved since the ground eventually ingested the blood. [Information and Image Credit : Dobrynya_Nikitich, Wikipedia] [Image : Dobrynya Nikitich rescues Zabava Putyatishna from the dragon Gorynych] [The Work (Image) is in the public domain in Russia according to article 1281 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, articles 5 and 6 of Law No. 231-FZ of the Russian Federation of December 18, 2006 (the Implementation Act for Book IV of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation); (Kindly Relate to Individual Source Image URL for more usage Property) [Source Image URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dobrynya_Nikitich_rescues_Zabava_from_the_Gorynych,_1941.jpg ] #Mythology
Selene is the goddess and embodiment of the Moon in the mythological culture and worship of ancient Greece. She is also referred to as Mene and is regarded as the sister of the sun god Helios and the dawn goddess Eos, as well as the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. She traverses the heavens on her moon chariot. In various tales, she is said to have had a number of lovers, including Zeus, Pan and the mortal Endymion. Similar to how her brother Helios was associated with Apollo in post-classical periods, Selene was frequently associated with Artemis. All three i.e. Selene, Hecate and Artemis were considered moon and lunar goddesses, although only Selene was thought to be the embodiment of the Moon itself. Both Selene and Artemis were thus identified with Hecate. Luna would be her Roman equal. Mene was another name for Selene. The moon and the lunar month were denoted by the Greek word mene. The Phrygian moon deity Men was the male version of Mene. Selene and Men, according to the Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, were the female and male facets of the same deity. Similar to how Helios is referred to as Phoebus or Bright, due to his affiliation with Apollo, Selene is also referred to as Phoebe in feminine form due to her identification with Artemis.
[Information and Image Credit : Selene, Wikipedia] [Image : Selene in a flying chariot drawn by two white horses from Flora, seu florum..., Ferrari 1646] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (Kindly Also Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [License Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en ]
[Original Source Image URL: https://bit.ly/3O6piKE ] #Mythology
Between 29 and 19 BC, Virgil penned the Latin epic poetry known as The Aeneid, which recounts the narrative of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the collapse of Troy and made his way to Italy, where he eventually settled and became the ancestor of the Romans. It has 9,896 dactylic hexameter lines. The first six of the twelve books of the poem describe the wanderings of Aeneas from Troy to Italy. The second part of the poem describes the eventually successful fight of the Trojans against the Latins and under name of Aeneas the Trojan followers are bound to be absorbed. Due to his appearance in the Iliad, the hero Aeneas was already well-known in both Greek and Roman myths and legends. The fragmented accounts of wanderings of Aeneas, his hazy connection to the establishment of Rome and his explanation as a figure of no fixed character-traits other than a scrupulous pietas, were used by Virgil to create the Aeneid, a persuasive foundational tale or national epic that linked Rome to Trojan legends, justified the Punic Wars, extolled conventional Roman virtues and established the Julio-Claudian monarchy as legitimate successors of the Champions, Founders and Gods of both Rome and Troy. One of the best pieces of Latin literature and largely recognised as masterpiece of Virgil is thus The Aeneid. [Information and Image Credit : Aeneid, Wikipedia] [Image : Aeneas Flees Burning Troy, by Federico Barocci (1598). Galleria Borghese, Rome, Italy] [ The Work (Image) is faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional, Public Domain Work of Art; The work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of Author plus 100 years or fewer. The Image is in Public Domain as well in the United States] [Original Source Image URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aeneas%27_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg ]
#Mythology
Mysticism is a term that refers to every ecstasy or heightened state of awareness that has a religious or spiritual connotation, but it can also signify entering into union with God or the Absolute. It also refers to human development aided by a variety of activities and encounters, as well as the acquisition of knowledge into ultimate or hidden truths. Mysticism is a term with Ancient Greek roots that has been given many historically established interpretations. Early modern mysticism came to be seen as a broad spectrum of ideas and philosophies concerning unique experiences and states of mind. Mysticism, which derives from Neo-Platonism and Henosis, is also known as unity with God or the Absolute. The phrase Unio Mystica first used in the thirteenth century to describe the Spiritual Marriage, the euphoria that occurred when prayer was used to examine both the universality of God in the creation and God in his core substance. This association was perceived in the 19th century as a religious experience, which offers assurance about God or a transcendental reality, according to Romanticism. However, not every situation lends itself to the concept of unity. For instance, according to Advaita Vedanta, there is only one reality i.e. the Brahman and as a result, there is nothing else that can be united with it; the Brahman that resides within each individual i.e the Atman has actually always been the same as Brahman. Additionally, scholars point out that the notion of oneness with God or the Absolute is excessively narrow because some faiths pursue nothingness rather than a sense of togetherness. The term Mysticism in modern era however refers more to the pursuit of this connection with the Absolute, the Infinite, or God and has a narrow definition with numerous applications. This constrained definition, which values Mystical Experience as a crucial component of mysticism, has been applied to a diverse spectrum of religious traditions and activities. [Information Credit : Mysticism, Wikipedia] [Image: A Samhain Special Mystical Ambience]
Three East Slavic texts mention the Slavic God Stribog, whose religion may have also flourished in Poland. The roles of the God are not mentioned in the scriptures, but in modern times he is most frequently seen as a wind divinity who bestows wealth. Stribog, according to Roman Jakobson, comprises the stem stri-, which is descended from the Proto-Slavic verb *sterti, which is only attested with suffixes and means — to extend, to spread, to widen or to disperse. The Hindu counterpart of Slavic Striborg, the Wind God Vayu, serves as evidence of his connection to wind. The Vedic pair of Bhaga and Amça OR the Greek pair of Aisa and Poros are related with the pair of Dazhbog and Stribog. The most common accepted etymology is this hypothesis. Some academics believe that Stribog may have originated as an appellation that meant —Father God— in the religions of the Indo-Europeans and was used to refer to the god of the clear sky. Stribog is positioned in the first group of the so-called trifunctional hypothesis, which organizes the major deities who oversee the population and the distribution of resources, by reconstructing the Proto-Indo-European phrase for God Father. Therefore, Stribog might possibly be the Slavic sky god as well. Although this derivation has been supported by a number of academics, most linguists often disagree with it. Stribog primarily appeared in the Primary Chronicle of the 12th century among other deities that Vladimir the Great had statues built for, such as Perun, Khors, Dazhbog, Simargl and Mokosh. [Information and Image Credit : Stribog, Wikipedia] [Image : Stribog, god of wind interpretation by Andrey Shishkin, 2014] [The Image file is from the Wikimedia Commons ; The Image is Availed Under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)][License-Link : https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en ]
[Original Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stribog_by_Andrey_Shishkin.jpg ] #Mythology
The Crimean Mountains and the small stretch of territory between them and the Black Sea were home to the ancient Taurians or Tauri Scythae or Tauroscythae or Scythotauri, who were based on the southern shore of the Crimean peninsula in the first millennium BC. Beginning towards the end of the third century BCE, Taurians intermingled with the Scythians and in the writings of the ancient Greeks, they are referred to as Tauroscythians and Scythotaurians. The evidences state that the Taurians were the first people to live on the Crimean peninsula and they never left its confines. They gave the peninsula their name; it had previously been called Taurica, Taurida and Tauris. In the second century BCE, the Pontic Kingdom ruled over the Taurians. Taurians underwent Romanization in the first century AD as a consequence of the Roman control. The Taurians persisted until the fourth century AD before being absorbed by the Alans and Goths. Herodotus mentions the Tauri as surviving through looting and warring in his Histories. They gained notoriety for their worship of a Virgin Deity, to whom they offered sacrifices by waylaying Greeks and stranded travellers. He emphasised that although they are not Scythians, they physically reside in Scythia. Strabo described the Tauri as a Scythian tribe in Geographica. Greeks associated Artemis Tauropolos or Iphigeneia, the daughter of Agamemnon, with the Tauric deity. The Greek myths of Iphigeneia and Orestes, which are described in Iphigeneia in Tauris, were inspired by the Tauric practise of human sacrifices. Even though Greek and the later Roman colonies finally took over the Crimean coast, particularly the one at Chersonesos, the Tauri remained a serious challenge to Greek sovereignty in the area. They mounted raids from their stronghold at Symbolon and engaged in piracy against Black Sea shipping. They were allied with the Scythian king Scilurus by the second century BC. The evolution and habitation of the Kizil-Koban Culture (KKC) around the eighth–fourth century BC was also significantly influenced by Taurians. [Information and Image Credit : Tauri, Wikipedia] [Image: Map of the Roman Empire under Hadrian, who ruled from 117 to 38 AD, highlighting the location of the homeland of the Tauri, Chersonnesos Taurike (Crimean peninsula)] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, Author : - User:Andrein
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[Source Image URL :
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A legendary sprite called a Kobold (also spelled Cobold) is mentioned. Having migrated to Europe using a variety of spellings such as Goblin and Hobgoblin, German folklore has continued to this day to use the term which originated in Germanic mythology. A Kobold can appear as a human, a fire, an animal or even a candle, despite the fact that they are typically invisible. Kobolds are most frequently portrayed as diminutive, human-like creatures that resemble small toddlers. Kobolds that reside in human households dress like peasants; those who reside in mines are hideous and hunched and some have the ability to manifest as bricks; and Kobolds who reside on ships smoke pipes and dress like sailors. Kobolds come in three main varieties, according to legend. The creatures are mostly contradictory domestic spirits that occasionally help with duties but can also be cruel if provoked or ignored. Kobolds are sometimes referred to by their regional names, as the Galgenmännlein in southern Germany and the Heinzelmännchen near Cologne. Mines and other underground spaces are frequented by another sort of Kobold. The Klabautermann, a third variety of Kobold, reside on ships and aid seafarers. Kobold beliefs—or just the fact that legends about them have persisted as stories—show that native religious beliefs were retained even after Germany was converted to Catholicism. Kobold figurines were carved by German peasants for their homes in the 13th century, which is at least when the belief in them first emerged. According to Greek mythology, the Kobaloi are thought to be gnome-dwarfs who are cheeky, stealing, lazy, mischievous and amusing. They also have a phallic appearance. Ancient Greek art frequently features Kobaloi. Kobolds that live underground may have descended from similar water spirits as well as from gnomes and dwarves, as did the aquatic Klabautermann. Because mediaeval miners blamed the sprite for the poisonous and difficult aspect of the typical arsenical ores of the metal i.e. cobaltite and smaltite, which contaminated other extracted elements, the element cobalt gets its name from this mythological being. [Information Credit : Kobold, Wikipedia] [Image Generated from Text via AI Image Generator of a – Goblin Smoking Pipe – Using
https://creator.nightcafe.studio/ ] #Mythology
The Otherworld is the Home of the Gods and possibly the dead in Celtic mythology. It is typically a celestial place of immortality, elegance, wellness, prosperity, and pleasure in Gaelic and Brittonic myth. It goes by a number of names in Irish mythology, including Tír na nÓg, Mag Mell, and Emain Ablach. In Irish myth, Tech Duinn is another location where the spirits of the dead congregate. In Welsh mythology, the Otherworld is typically referred to as Annwn and in the Arthurian tale, as Avalon. It is referred as either a heavenly place beyond the sea or beneath the earth, or as a parallel realm that coexists with our own. Although the Otherworld is typically inaccessible, a number of fabled heroes have made accidental or invited visits there. They frequently enter old burial mounds or caverns to get there, or they may swim across the western sea or go beneath water. They occasionally find themselves in the Otherworld by accident, where strange animals, magical beings or a mystical mist may be present. An otherworldly woman might present the hero an apple, a silver apple branch or a ball of thread to follow as it unfurls as an invitation to enter the Otherworld. The term Otherworld indeed refers to a paranormal dimension where time is said to operate differently and where there is perpetual youth, beauty, health, affluence and happiness. It is where the gods, as well as some ancestors and heroes, reside. It was presumably comparable to the Elysium of Greek mythology, and it is possible that long before both the places had their roots in Proto-Indo-European religion. The holidays of Beltane and Samhain are transitional occasions in Irish mythology and later folklore, during which communication with the Otherworld is more likely. [Information and Image Credit : Celtic_Otherworld, Wikipedia] [Image: The Land of the Ever Young as protrayed by Arthur Rackham in Irish Fairy Tales (1920)] [The Image File is in public domain in the United States (Please Relate to Source Image-URL for more Image Usage Property) ]
[Source Image-URL :
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The Pontic steppe was ruled by the Sarmatians, a sizable coalition of ancient Eastern Iranian equine nomads, who lived there from roughly the third century BCE to the fourth century CE. The Sarmatians were a subgroup of the larger Scythian societies and had their origins in the middle of the Eurasian Steppe. Around the fourth and third century BC, they began to migrate westward, and by 200 BC, they had surpassed the nearly related Scythians in power. These tribes reportedly reached their maximum documented size in the year 100 BC, bordering the Black and Caspian oceans, the Caucasus to the south, and from the rivers Vistula, Danube as well as Volga to the east. In partnership with Germanic tribes, the Sarmatians started expanding on the Roman Empire in the first century AD. However, t heir rule over the Pontic Steppe was finally overthrown by the Germanic Goths in the third century AD. Many Sarmatians joined the Goths and other Germanic tribes (Vandals) in settling the Western Roman Empire after the Hunnic invasions of the fourth century. The Volga-Don and Ural steppes are frequently referred to as the Sarmatian Motherland because the Sarmatians dominated a significant portion of modern-day Russia in the fifth century BC, particularly the area between the Ural Mountains and the Don River. While some of the Sarmatians in the Bosporan Kingdom were absorbed into Greek culture, others were gradually assimilated by the proto-Circassian Meot tribe, the Alans and the Goths. The Early Slavs merged and incorporated the other Sarmatians. The Alans, a Sarmatian-related people that persisted in the North Caucasus into the Early Middle Ages, eventually gave origin to the contemporary Ossetic ethnic group. Sometimes, Sauromatai, a name that is probably certainly a variation of Sarmatai, is used in place of the Greek name. Despite historical claims to the contrary, it is very definitely untrue that the Sarmatians got their name from the Greek word for lizard (sauros), which is connected to their usage of scale armour and dragon flags. The Sarmatians themselves reportedly went by the name Arii. The Sarmatians lived in what Greco-Roman researches referred to as Sarmatia, which roughly corresponds to modern-day Central Ukraine, South-Eastern Ukraine, Southern Russia, Russian Volga, and South-Ural regions, as well as to a lesser extent the northeastern Balkans and the area surrounding Moldova. Sarmatia was the western portion of Greater Scythia. [Information and Image Credit : Sarmatians, Wikipedia] [Image : Sarmatian Ctaphracts during Dacian Wars as depicted on Column of Trajan] [Image Availed Under Public Domain Work in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the life of author plus 80 years or fewer. This work is in the public domain in the United States because it was published (or registered with the U.S. Copyright Office) before January 1, 1927. (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL :
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In Irish mythology, a supernatural species known as the Fomorians or Fomori is sometimes described as a hostile race of terrible creatures. They were first believed to have originated from the earth or beneath the sea. They were then represented as giants and later as sea raiders. Despite the fact that certain members of the two races had progeny, they are the rivals of the and the adversaries of the early settlers of Ireland. In the Battle of Mag Tuired, the Tuath Dé triumph over the Fomorians. The story has been compared to various Indo-European tales of Gods at War, such as the Norse epic of the and Vanir, the Greek myth of the Olympians and Titans as well as the Vedic myth of the Devas and Asuras. According to Dáithí Ó hÓgáin, the Norse and Vedic versions, in which the vanquished races stand in for the fertility of the earth, are analogous to the Tuath Dé learning agricultural expertise from the Fomorians. One idea holds that the Fomorians were supernatural entities personifying anarchy, gloom, death, infestation and drought; they represented the untamed or destructive forces of nature. The race is typically referred to as the Fomóire or Fomóiri in plural form in Old and Middle Irish, and a single member is referred to as a Fomóir (in singular form). They are also referred to as the in plural form in Middle Irish. The Fomorians appear to have first been thought of as evil spirits that lived beneath the surface of the earth and in its water depths. They are stated to reside—under the worlds of men—in one of the earliest accounts of them, a lamenting poem for Mess-Telmann that dates back to the 7th century. They were later represented as maritime raiders as well. The term Fomorians was later applied to any land-based or sea-based pirates, and its true meaning was lost. [Information and Image Credit : Fomorians , Wikipedia] [Image : The Fomorians, as depicted by John Duncan (1912) ] [Original Image Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Fomorians,_Duncan_1912.jpg ] #Mythology
Shapeshifting is the faculty to bodily change yourself by a naturally supernatural skill, supernatural intervention, devilish influence, wizardry, charms, or being acquired the talent. It appears in mythology, folk-stories, and science fiction. Ancient types of mystical symbolism and shamanism, as well as the earliest known writings and legendary poetry like the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Iliad, all contain references to shape-shifting. The idea is still used frequently in contemporary fiction, children-stories, and pop culture. Werewolves and vampires (predominantly of European, Canadian and Native American/early American ancestry), the East Asian huli jing (along with the Japanese Kitsune and Korean Kumiho), divinities, goddesses, demons & demonesses like Succubus & Incubus, and other countless belief systems, including the Norse Loki and the Greek Proteus, are all famous shapeshifting entities in folk tales. The act of changing appearance of one to take on the appearance of a grey wolf is termed as lycanthropy, and those who go through this process are regarded as lycanthropes. Although Therianthropy is a more comprehensive term, it is rarely used in that context. Deities would frequently change humans into animals or vegetation. Metamorph, the Navajo skin-walker, mimic, and therianthrope are other names for shapeshifters. The prefix Were- is also used to denote shapeshifters; notwithstanding its origin, it is also used to denote female shapeshifters. It comes from the Old English term meaning Man, which is masculine rather than general. While the common conception of a shapeshifter is a person who transforms into another, there are many tales of animals who may also change. [Information and Image Credit : Shapeshifting, Wikipedia] [Image : Tsarevna Frog (or The Frog Princess), by Viktor Vasnetsov, tells of a frog that metamorphoses into a princess.] [Image Availed Under (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vasnetsov_Frog_Princess.jpg ] #Mythology
In Irish mythology, a supernatural species known as the Fomorians or Fomori is sometimes described as a hostile race of terrible creatures. They were first believed to have originated from the earth or beneath the sea. They were then represented as giants and later as sea raiders. Despite the fact that certain members of the two races had progeny, they are the rivals of the and the adversaries of the early settlers of Ireland. In the Battle of Mag Tuired, the Tuath Dé triumph over the Fomorians. The story has been compared to various Indo-European tales of Gods at War, such as the Norse epic of the and Vanir, the Greek myth of the Olympians and Titans as well as the Vedic myth of the Devas and Asuras. According to Dáithí Ó hÓgáin, the Norse and Vedic versions, in which the vanquished races stand in for the fertility of the earth, are analogous to the Tuath Dé learning agricultural expertise from the Fomorians. One idea holds that the Fomorians were supernatural entities personifying anarchy, gloom, death, infestation and drought; they represented the untamed or destructive forces of nature. The race is typically referred to as the Fomóire or Fomóiri in plural form in Old and Middle Irish, and a single member is referred to as a Fomóir (in singular form). They are also referred to as the in plural form in Middle Irish. The Fomorians appear to have first been thought of as evil spirits that lived beneath the surface of the earth and in its water depths. They are stated to reside—under the worlds of men—in one of the earliest accounts of them, a lamenting poem for Mess-Telmann that dates back to the 7th century. They were later represented as maritime raiders as well. The term Fomorians was later applied to any land-based or sea-based pirates, and its true meaning was lost. [Information and Image Credit : Fomorians , Wikipedia] [Image : The Fomorians, as depicted by John Duncan (1912) ] [Original Image Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Fomorians,_Duncan_1912.jpg ]
It is known that around 115 BC, King Antialkidas (Indo-Greek) sent Heliodorus to the court of Sunga King Bhagabhadra in Vidisha, India. Around the same time or around 115 BC, artisans from the northwest built decorative reliefs for the first time at Sanchi, which is six miles from Vidisha. Instead of using the regional Brahmi alphabet, these artisans left their markings as masons in Kharoshthi, which was mostly used in the region around Gandhara. This suggests that some of the earliest designs and figures that can be seen on the railings of the Stupa were created by these foreign labourers. The more elaborate pillar carvings at Sanchi are dated to 80 BC, while the earlier reliefs (which are at Sanchi Stupa No 2) there are dated to 115 BC. According to general-acceptance, these reliefs are the oldest elaborate stupa adornment in existence. They are regarded as the creators of the Indian Jataka drawings. [Images : 1. Lakshmi with lotus and two child attendants, probably derived from similar images of Venus 2. Foreigner on a horse. The medallions are dated circa 115 BC 3. Griffin 4. Female riding a Centaur 5. Lotus within Hellenistic beads and reels motif 6. Floral motif. ] [Information and Image Credit : Indo-Greek_Kingdom, Wikipedia] Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic and Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image URLs :: 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lakshmi_Sanchi_Stupa_2.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sanchi_Stupa_2_man_on_horse.jpg 3. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sanchi_Stupa_Nr._2_Chim%C3%A4re_(1999).JPG 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Female_riding_a_Centaur_Sanchi_Stupa_2.jpg 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lotus_within_beads_and_reels_motif_Stupa_No2_Sanchi.jpg 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flower_motif_Stupa_No2_Sanchi.jpg ]
Between the middle of the second century and the fourth century CE, a group of nomadic Iranian peoples of Scythian descent known as the Indo-Scythians—also known as the Indo-Sakas—migrated from Central Asia into the northern and western parts of ancient India. Maues/Moga (1st century BC), who established Saka sovereignty in Gandhara and the Indus Valley, was the first Saka monarch of India. As they expanded their dominance over northwest India, the Indo-Scythians subjugated the Indo-Greeks and other regional kingdoms. Buddhist friezes in the art of Gandhara occasionally include Indo-Scythian troops dressed in armour. They are portrayed as having large tunics and pants as well as hefty straight swords. The Indo-Scythians appear to have been Buddhists, and many of their customs appear to have been carried over from the Indo-Greeks. It appears that either Kujula Kadphises or Kanishka, a ruler of the Kushan Empire, subdued the Indo-Scythians. The Northern Satraps and Western Satraps were formed by the Saka, who yet continued to rule as satrapies. After the Satavahana emperor Gautamiputra Satakarni ousted the Indo-Scythians, the power of the Saka kings began to wane in the second century CE. When Chandragupta II, the Gupta emperor, conquered the final Western Satrap Rudrasimha III in 395 CE, Indo-Scythian dominion over the northwest of the Indian subcontinent came to an end. The Sakas (Scythian) tribes are regarded to be the forefathers of the Indo-Scythians. The region that the Sakas colonised in Drangiana—in southern Afghanistan, western Pakistan, and southern Iran—became known as Sakastan or Sistan as a result. From there, they gradually spread into modern-day Iran and northern India, where they founded several kingdoms and acquired the name - Saka. [Images 1) Sakastan Map around 100 BC 2) Indo-Scythian Territory including Northern and Western Kshatraps 3) Scythian devotee around Buddha, Brahma and Indra 4) Head of Saka Warrior] [information and Image Credit : Indo-Scythians , Wikipedia] [Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication and Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SakastanMap.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kushan,_Brahma,_Indra,_Indian.JPG 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Indo-Scythians.png 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saka_warrior_Termez_Achaeological_Museum.jpg ]
When the Indo-Greek rulers governed both Bactria and northwest India between the reigns of Demetrius and Eucratides , the historical Eucratideia (historical Alexandria on the Oxus River, later renamed Arukratiya or Eucratidia) was one of the key cities and a mystery of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The city is thought to have been founded by Alexander the Great around 327 BC. The city is situated in northern Takhar Province of . The Khyber Pass, which provides access to South Asia by road, is on the lower of two important sets of pathways (lowland and highland) that connect Western Asia to that sub-continent. One of the main centres of Hellenism in the East was Eucratideia, which mixed Greek and Persian architectural elements. The spectacular Royal Palace was constructed in the Achaemenid style, but there are also several Hellenic temples and a sizable amphitheatre that show a strong Greek influence. Eucratideia served as the capital of the Bactrian kingdom for about two centuries before it was destroyed by nomadic invaders around 145 BC, at the time of the death of Eukratides the Great. The following remarkable findings were uncovered during archaeological digs of the city :: -- 1. The surrounding ramparts of the city, which were two kilometres long. 2. A classical theatre with a seating capacity of 4,000–6,000 people, 84 metres in diameter, 35 rows of seats, and three loges for the rulers of the city. 3. A sizable palace with Greco-Bactrian construction that strangely evokes the formal imperial architecture of Persia. 4. One of the biggest gymnasiums from antiquity, measuring 100 by 100 metres. On one of the pillars, there was a Greek dedication to Hermes and Herakles. Two guys with Greek names made the dedication (Triballos & Strato, son of Strato). 5. The numerous temples within the city. Zeus appeared to be sitting in a massive statue within the main temple of the city, but it was actually a Zoroastrian replica (rather than open columnar structure of the Greek temple, it was firmly closed.) [Information and Image Credit : Ai-Khanoum , Wikipedia] [Image 1: Plaque from the sanctuary showing a votive offering to the Greek goddess Cybele and a Bactrian Sun God. 2. A center of Hellenistic Bactria, Eucratideia (Ai-Khanoum) was located on a triangular peninsula at the confluence of two rivers.] [Image Availed Under Public Domain Work (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Source-Image-Source-URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BactriaMap.jpg ]
Shapeshifting is the faculty to bodily change yourself by a naturally supernatural skill, supernatural intervention, devilish influence, wizardry, charms, or being acquired the talent. It appears in mythology, folk-stories, and science fiction. Ancient types of mystical symbolism and shamanism, as well as the earliest known writings and legendary poetry like the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Iliad, all contain references to shape-shifting. The idea is still used frequently in contemporary fiction, children-stories, and pop culture. Werewolves and vampires (predominantly of European, Canadian and Native American/early American ancestry), the East Asian huli jing (along with the Japanese Kitsune and Korean Kumiho), divinities, goddesses, demons & demonesses like Succubus & Incubus, and other countless belief systems, including the Norse Loki and the Greek Proteus, are all famous shapeshifting entities in folk tales. The act of changing appearance of one to take on the appearance of a grey wolf is termed as lycanthropy, and those who go through this process are regarded as lycanthropes. Although Therianthropy is a more comprehensive term, it is rarely used in that context. Deities would frequently change humans into animals or vegetation. Metamorph, the Navajo skin-walker, mimic, and therianthrope are other names for shapeshifters. The prefix Were- is also used to denote shapeshifters; notwithstanding its origin, it is also used to denote female shapeshifters. It comes from the Old English term meaning Man, which is masculine rather than general. While the common conception of a shapeshifter is a person who transforms into another, there are many tales of animals who may also change. [Information and Image Credit : Shapeshifting, Wikipedia] [Image : Tsarevna Frog (or The Frog Princess), by Viktor Vasnetsov, tells of a frog that metamorphoses into a princess.] [Image Availed Under (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vasnetsov_Frog_Princess.jpg ]
More modern recurve bows and a hit-and-run tactic were employed in the Scythian War against foot-soldier formations that were fixed in place. The Scythian warrior released a volley of lethal arrows while riding from a quick horse. He was renowned for his inventive use of scaled-armour, and he also used shields and swords in one-on-one hand combats. The fact that the wandering Scythians who inhabited Central Asia between the seventh and third century BCE and ruled the Steppe-plains was undoubtedly amazing. The Scythians used both specialised scaled-armour and single-piece greaves to cover their legs for self defense. They used animal ligaments to secure iron sheets onto supple leather corselets in an arrangement resembling fish scales. With more strategic evolution , complete metal headgear of the Kuban and Corinthian varieties were also used in Scythian battles. Battle axes, clubs, lances, and spears are discovered among their burial items as a component of their military arsenal. The spears are 1.8 metres (6 ft) long, and a few of the lances recovered are around 3 metres (10 ft) long. The bow, however, was the most potent tool of the Scythian soldier. It is the apex of bow innovation and was imitated by succeeding races like the Parthians, Mongols, and Turks. It is made of laminated wood material, horns, ligaments, and glue. To increase arrow propulsion and protracted precision, these bows featured a backward-curving shape. It was brief, making it ideal for mounting a horse and releasing an arrow! The intricate Scythian-bow required a meticulous assembly, curing and drying procedure that may would take up to two years and it was a prized trading item for particular partners like the Greeks! [Information-Credit: Scythian_Warfare, worldhistory.org ] [Image-Credit: Scythians, Wikipedia] [Image: Battle between the Scythians and the Slavs in Romantic Nationalism by Viktor Vasnetsov, 1881] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image-Link :: https://bit.ly/3Uq7nRP ]
More modern recurve bows and a hit-and-run tactic were employed in the Scythian War against foot-soldier formations that were fixed in place. The Scythian warrior released a volley of lethal arrows while riding from a quick horse. He was renowned for his inventive use of scaled-armour, and he also used shields and swords in one-on-one hand combats. The fact that the wandering Scythians who inhabited Central Asia between the seventh and third century BCE and ruled the Steppe-plains was undoubtedly amazing. The Scythians used both specialised scaled-armour and single-piece greaves to cover their legs for self defense. They used animal ligaments to secure iron sheets onto supple leather corselets in an arrangement resembling fish scales. With more strategic evolution , complete metal headgear of the Kuban and Corinthian varieties were also used in Scythian battles. Battle axes, clubs, lances, and spears are discovered among their burial items as a component of their military arsenal. The spears are 1.8 metres (6 ft) long, and a few of the lances recovered are around 3 metres (10 ft) long. The bow, however, was the most potent tool of the Scythian soldier. It is the apex of bow innovation and was imitated by succeeding races like the Parthians, Mongols, and Turks. It is made of laminated wood material, horns, ligaments, and glue. To increase arrow propulsion and protracted precision, these bows featured a backward-curving shape. It was brief, making it ideal for mounting a horse and releasing an arrow! The intricate Scythian-bow required a meticulous assembly, curing and drying procedure that may would take up to two years and it was a prized trading item for particular partners like the Greeks. [Information-Credit: Scythian_Warfare, worldhistory.org ] [Image-Credit: Scythians, Wikipedia] [Image: Battle between the Scythians and the Slavs in Romantic Nationalism by Viktor Vasnetsov, 1881] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Original Source Image-Link :: https://bit.ly/3Uq7nRP ]
Iranian Mount Behistun is home to a Statue of Hercules (Heracles). The only remaining rock sculpture from the Seleucid era, which ruled the Iranian Plateau from from 312 BC to 140/139 BC, was found in 1958. A Seleucid governor commissioned the creation of the statue in 148 BC, dedicating it in honour of --Herakles Kallinikos (Hercules Glorious in Victory). It was sculpted in honour of a Satrap by the Seleucid governor. A bowl is in left hand of Hercules as he lies on a 2 m long platform. On his leg, his right hand is at rest. The figure is affixed to the mountain and is 1.47 metres long. The shape of the relief-design is reminiscent of other Seleucid stone carvings in the region that contained official inscriptions, most notably the stele from Laodicia-in-Media (Nahavand), where a local Seleucid official copied the royal cult inscription of Antiochus III the Great (reign 222-187 BC), which he had made for his wife Queen Laodice III, onto the stele. A carver who was not professionally trained in the Greek sculptural tradition sculpted the Bisotun Hercules. The architecture was more Iranian than Greek, according to contemporary historian Rolf Strootman. Heracles is rarely seen with a bow in Hellenistic art. However, he is holding a bow that resembles those depicted in the Behistun inscription in the stone carving. Even while the Greek religion made frequent use of the divine epithet (Kallinikos), it was equally fitting for the Iranian god Wahrām, to whom Hercules was fused. The club of Heracles is depicted in sculpture. [Info and Image Credit : Statue_of_Hercules_in_Behistun, Wikipedia] [Image: Herakles at Behistun, created in 148 BCE for a Seleucid Governor] [Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL :
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Around 7th century BC, the Scythians traveled across the Caucasus from the Northern region of the Black Sea. The First Scythian kingdom was dominated by a form of inter-ethnic dependence based on the conquest of the agricultural population in eastern South Caucasus. They also relied on Predatorial Attacks and Taxation (sometimes as far south as Syrian region), regular tribute (from Media), compliments disguised as gifts (from Egyptian 25th dynasty) and perhaps payment as Military Aid (from Neo-Assyrian Empire). It might be, that the same dynasty ruled in Scythia in much of their history. The legendary founder of the dynasty i.e. Koloksai, was mentioned by Alcman (Ancient Greek choral lyric poet from Sparta) in the seventh century BC. Protothyes and Madyes, Scythian kings in the Near Eastern period of their history, and their successors in the north Pontic steppes belonged to the same dynasty. Herodotus lists five generations of Scythian royalty from the late 7th century BC to the 6th century BC namely :- Spargapeithes, Lycus, Gnurus, Idanthyrsus, Saulius and Prince Anacharsis. After the defeat and expulsion from the Middle East, the Scythians were forced to withdraw but ultimately regained land north of the Black Sea in the first half of the 6th century BC! Later in that century, the Scythians succeeded in controlling and receiving homage to the agricultural tribes of the forest steppe. The Assyrian Empire started to fall apart in the 620s BC, and the Medes were freed from the Scythian yoke over them in 625 BC thanks to the assassination of the Scythian commanders, notably Madyes. The Scythians quickly seized control of the Levant and Palestine until they reached the borders of Egypt, where they turned back after the pharaoh Psamtik I met them and persuaded them to do so by offering them gifts. This was made possible by the power vacuum left by the fall of the former Assyrian allies of the Scythians. Consequently their status greatly improved with the advent of the Second Scythian Kingdom, which was founded in the 4th century BC. Herodotus later also mentioned three Scythian rulers contemporaneous with him: Ariapeithes, Scyles, and Octamasadas. [Info Credit: Scythia, Wikipedia] [Image-Credit : Black_Sea ; Caucasus; Wikipedia] [Image:: 1. The location of the Black Sea 2. Topography of the Caucasus] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art and Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image-Links : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Black_Sea_map.png 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus_topographic_map-en.svg ]
Ancient Greek goddess of beauty and sexual love Aphrodite was known by the Romans as Venus. The Greek term Aphros means Foam, and Hesiod claims in his Theogony that Aphrodite was created from the white foam that was produced when genitalia-cut of Uranus (Heaven) were thrown into the sea by his son Cronus. Aphrodite was in reality revered in many cultures as a goddess of the sea, sailors, and particularly of war in Sparta, Thebes, Cyprus, and other locations. Though she occasionally oversaw marriages, she was largely revered as a goddess of love and fertility. Aphrodite and Hephaestus, the deity of fire, smithing, and metalworking, were wed in Greek mythology. Aphrodite constantly betrayed him and had other lovers; in the Odyssey, she is seen having an affair with the god of war, Ares. She woos the mortal shepherd Anchises in the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Adonis, a shepherd who perished at the hands of a wild boar, also had Aphrodite as his substitute mother and lover. Aphrodite, who also appears prominently in the Iliad, was one of the three goddesses whose conflict led to the start of the Trojan War, along with Athena and Hera. As a representation of female beauty, Aphrodite has been used in Western art and literature on various occasions. In contemporary Neopagan cults like the Church of Aphrodite, Wicca, and Hellenismos, she is a central deity! [Info-Credit: Aphrodite-Greek-mythology , Britannica; Aphrodite, Wikipedia] [Source-Image-Link: https://cdn.britannica.com/77/133977-050-CFD2D61A/Venus-and-Adonis-oil-canvas-Titian-National.jpg ] #Art#ArtWork#Greek#Mythology
The Saka were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who historically inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin. For the Achaemenids, there were three types of Sakas: the Sakā tayai paradraya (beyond the sea, presumably between the Greeks and the Thracians on the Western side of the Black Sea), the Sakā tigraxaudā (with pointed caps), the Sakā haumavargā (Hauma drinkers, furthest East). In the 2nd century BC, many Sakas were driven by the Yuezhi from the steppe into Sogdia and Bactria and then to the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, where they were known as the Indo-Scythians Other Sakas invaded the Parthian Empire, eventually settling in Sistan, while others may have migrated to the Dian Kingdom in Yunnan, China. In the Tarim Basin and Taklamakan Desert region of Northwest China, they settled in Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar and other places, which were at various times vassals to greater powers, such as Han China and Tang China. [Info and Image Credit: Saka, Wikipedia] [Image 1: Types of Sakas, According to Achaemenids, Soldiers of the Achaemenid army, Xerxes I tomb detail, circa 480 BC. 2. Captured Saka king Skunkha, from Mount Behistun, Iran, Achaemenid stone relief from the reign of Darius I (r. 522–486 BC) [ Attribution: livius.org ] 3. The Sakas as subjects of the Achaemenid Empire on the statue of Darius I, circa 500 BC. 4. Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian King Azes II (ruled c. 35–12 BC). Note the royal tamga on the coin. ] [Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication , Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic and Attribution to :: livius.org ] (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xerxes_detail_three_types_of_Sakas_cleaned_up.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Behistun.Inscript.Skunkha.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Darius_I_Statue_Sakas.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Azes_II.jpg ]
The Scythian religion is associated with the myths, rituals and beliefs of Scythian culture including those of Alans, proper Scythians, Sarmatians, Sindi, Massagetae and Saka. The Scythian religion is associated with early polytheism of Proto Indo-Iranian Faith and is believed to have influenced later Slavic, Hungarian, Turkic myths, and some modern East Iranian and Ossetian traditions. Scythian burials were one of the most common and permanent features dating from the Eneolithic to the historic era. Herodotus also described the execution of horses at the burial of a Scythian king. According to Herodotus, the Scythians worshiped the Pantheon of 7 Gods and Goddess (Heptad), equating them with the ancient Greek Gods. He specifically mentions an Eighth God, with the Eighth being worshiped by the Royal Scythians. The structure of the Scythian Pantheon is usually Indo-Iranian and has been divided into three ranks. Tapatī (helenized as Ταβιτί) the goddess of heat, fire and hearth and equated by Herodotus with the Greek goddess Hestia. It was similar to the name of the Hindu Goddess Tapati and the verb associated with the latter name, तापयति Tapayati (burning / hot). In the Second Rank were the binary opposites with Papaios being the Sky-father and Api being Earth and Water Mother. The Final Rank composed of Scythian-Hēraklês whose Scythian name was Dargatavah, and was the forefather of the Scythian kings; the Scythian-Árēs the God of War; Gaiθāsūra, probably associated with the Sun and equated by Herodotus with the Greek Sun God Apollo; Artimpasa or Argimpasa, the guardian deity of fertility with power over sovereignty and priestly force and identified by Herodotus with Aphrodite Urania! The Avestan name Gaoiiaoⁱtiš.sūrō, which is an epithet of Miϑra as the - Lord of Cattle-Land - a deity of cattle culture who is extensively worshipped by the common people in Scythian society, and the Vedic Sanskrit name Gavyutiśūra (गव्युतिशूर) are similar to the Scythian name Gaiϑāsūra! An Eighth Scythian deity mentioned by Herodotus was Thagimasádas, whom he equated with the Greek God Poseidon. [Info and Image Credit :: Scythian_religion, Wikipedia] [Image: 1) A collection of drawings of Scythian stelae of the 6th and 5th centuries BC 2) Decorated tapestry with a seated goddess (Artimpasa) and Scythian rider, Pazyryk Kurgan 5, Altai, Southern Russia c. 241 BC.] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art and Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported] [Source-Image URL : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pazyryk_presentation_scene.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scythian_stelae_01.jpg ]
Children of the Sun ::-- ‘Om Suryaye Namaha‘ -- is the mantra dedicated to the Sun God – Surya (Surya-deva) in Hindu Religion. The worship of Sun as one of the most divine symbol of power was quite naturally the most popular commonality among the Indo-European races. Surya is glorified in the ancient Indian Vedas as an all-seeing god who observes both good and evil acts. It drives away not only darkness, but also bad dreams and illnesses. Sun heroes and sun kings also occupy a central position in Indian mythology, where Vivasvant, the father of Yama, corresponds to the Iranian Vivahvant, the father of Yima. According to the Vedas, he is one of 33 sons of Goddess Aditi and is also known as Aditya. Surya, the sun, is a symbol of immeasurable light and wisdom. Solar dynasty or the Ikshvaku dynasty, also known as Sūryavaṃśa ("Solar dynasty" or "Descendants of the Sun") is a legendary Indian princely dynasty and comprises one of the main lineages of the Kshatriya Varna in India, founded by the legendary king Ikshvaku. According to Buddhist texts and tradition, even Gautama Buddha descended from this dynasty. The Buddhist text, Buddhavamsa and Mahavamsa (II, 1–24) traces the origin of the Shakyas to king Okkaka (Pali equivalent to Sanskrit Ikshvaku) and gives their genealogy from Mahasammata, an ancestor of Okkaka. Similarly in medieval Iran, Sun festivals were celebrated as a continuous tradition from ancient times. The characteristics of Indo-European sun worship are similar and has Solar-Deity drawn generally by four white horses on a carriage and similarly repeated in Indo-Iranian, Greek-Roman, and Scandinavian myths! Later in Roman history, the worship of the sun became more important and eventually became “Solar Monotheism”. [Info Credit: Solar_dynasty, Wikipedia] [Info-Credit: sun-worship , Britannica][Image Right: Credit Molee Art]
An ancient Greek temple at Olympia, Greece, notably the Temple of Zeus was constructed in the second quarter of the fifth century BC and served as the prototype for a completely developed Doric Order (Simple Circular Capitals at the Top of Columns) of classical Greek temples. At Olympia, the Temple of Zeus was constructed on top of a much older holy site. In the tenth and ninth century BC, known as the Dark Age of Greece, when the devotees of Zeus and Hera had merged hands that the Altis (Archaia Olympia), an enclosure containing a holy grove, open-air altars, and the Tumulus of Pelops (king of Pisa in the Peloponnesus region according to Greek Mythology), was first constructed. The temple had a frontal pronaos (porch), which was mirrored by an identical arrangement at the back of the structure, the opisthodomos (rear room or inner shrine of Greek Temples). The temple had a peripteral form. The outside columns were arranged in a six by thirteen configuration, and two rows of seven columns separated the cella (inner chamber) into three aisles. The structure was supported by a crepidoma (platform) of three uneven steps. The Second Temple of Hera in Paestum, which closely mimicked the original design of the Temple of Zeus, can be considered as a reminder of it. The primary structure was made of a low-quality, lackluster local limestone, so to match the sculptural embellishment, a thin layer of stucco was applied to make it look like marble. Tiles made of Pentelic marble, that were so thin that they were translucent enough, used to cover the roof. This was done so that each of the 1,000 tiles would have let in light equivalent enough to a regular 20-watt bulb. 39 of the 102 lion-headed waterspouts or gargoyles that protruded from the edge of the roof still exist today. The temple stood 68 feet tall up to the pediment, 95 feet wide, and 230 feet long when Pausanias visited the location in the second century A.D. A ramp on the east side led up to it. [Info and Image Credit: Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia, Wikipedia] [Image: Illustration of the Temple of Zeus as it might have looked in the fifth century BC by Wilhelm Lübke (Original Image Colorized by an AI Image Colorizer)][Original Image Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)][Original Source Image URL :
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Olympia-ZeusTempelRestoration.jpg ]
Kaba-ye-Zartosht or the Cube of Zoroaster is a stepped structure made of quadrangular stones, inside the premise of Naqsh-e-Rostam, an archaeological site and necropolis located some 12 km north-west of Persepolis in the Fars Province of Iran. The structure is rectangular in shape and has only one door for entrance. The structure lies just opposite to the mausoleum of Darius II. The entrance door gives way to the chamber inside by using thirty-stair stone stairway. The structure was build during Achaemenid period and was known as BonKhanak in the Sasanian era. Locally the structure was also known as Naggarekhaneh where Khaneh means –House and Naggar means –Keep/Hold. From fourteenth-century onwards to up to current era the structure is known as Kaba-ye-Zartosht. According to some suggestions the tower was used as fire-temple and fireplace, which was used for igniting and worshipping the holy fire. Some scholars also believe the structure could have been used for safekeeping of royal documents or other holy religious books. It could also have been a mausoleum like that of Tomb of Cyrus or a Temple for Goddess Anahita or a Solar Calendar. Three Sasanian Inscriptions written in Sasanian Middle Persian, Arsacid Middle Persian and Greek are found on the Northern, Southern and Eastern Walls of the tower. [Info and Image Credit: Kaba-ye-Zartosht, Wikipedia] [Image : Kaba-ye Zartosht from above the Mountain of Mercy; Image Colorized by AI technology] [Image Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Source-Image Link : https://bit.ly/3qk3Wy1 ]
Kaba-ye-Zartosht or the Cube of Zoroaster is a stepped structure made of quadrangular stones, inside the premise of Naqsh-e-Rostam, an archaeological site and necropolis located some 12 km north-west of Persepolis in the Fars Province of Iran. The structure is rectangular in shape and has only one door for entrance. The structure lies just opposite to the mausoleum of Darius II. The entrance door gives way to the chamber inside by using thirty-stair stone stairway. The structure was build during Achaemenid period and was known as BonKhanak in the Sasanian era. Locally the structure was also known as Naggarekhaneh where Khaneh means –House and Naggar means –Keep/Hold. From fourteenth-century onwards to up to current era the structure is known as Kaba-ye-Zartosht. According to some suggestions the tower was used as fire-temple and fireplace, which was used for igniting and worshipping the holy fire. Some scholars also believe the structure could have been used for safekeeping of royal documents or other holy religious books. It could also have been a mausoleum like that of Tomb of Cyrus or a Temple for Goddess Anahita or a Solar Calendar. Three Sasanian Inscriptions written in Sasanian Middle Persian, Arsacid Middle Persian and Greek are found on the Northern, Southern and Eastern Walls of the tower. [Info and Image Credit: Kaba-ye-Zartosht, Wikipedia] [Image : Kaba-ye Zartosht from above the Mountain of Mercy] [Image Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URL for More Usage Property)] [Source-Image Link : https://bit.ly/3qk3Wy1 ]
Ancient Greek Temples spans over a wide landmass of mainland Greece and Hellenic settlements and colonies of Aegean Islands, Italy (Magna Graecia i.e. the coastal areas of Southern Italy ), Sicily and Asia Minor. All the areas influenced by ancient Greek Culture and Civilization were impressed by the Religious Practice of the Hellenic People. The temples were built on very regular form of Greek architecture i.e. the construction being of post and lintel where strong horizontal elements of a building system are held up by strong vertical elements, with large spaces in between them. The defining styles of the Greek Temples are of three basic orders. The Doric Order with recognizable feature of simple circular capitals at the top of columns. It originated in the Doric region of Greece and found throughout Greece, Sicily and Italy. The Ionic Order which was more predominant in Asia Minor and had related examples in Greece. The Ionic columns generally stands on base that separates the column shaft from –stylobate -- or stepped platform with the cap being adorned with ornamental egg-and-dart mouldings. The Cornithian order was the last and most developed of the Greek architectural style and became popular from 1st Century BCE onwards and had wide acceptance in Roman architecture. This style of Greek architecture is marked by thin fluted columns and elaborated capitals, with decoration of acanthus leaves and scrolls. Every Greek Temple was dedicated in honor of individual Greek Gods within the Greek pantheon and often used for safe-keeping of all the offerings consecrated to the Gods. The interior of the Temples contained trophies and large Statue of the Deity concerned. [Image 1. Temple of Apollo, Corinth (540 BCE) ; 2. Temple of Aphaea, Aegina (490 BCE); 3. Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460BCE); 4. Temple of Hephaestos, Athens; (449 - 444 BCE) 5. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassae (450 - 425 BCE); 6. The Pantheon, Athens (447 - 432 BCE)] [Info and Image Credit : List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples, Wikipedia][Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Italy, 2.0 Generic; Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korinth_BW_2017-10-10_10-55-28.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegina_-_Temple_of_Aphaia_03.jpg 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempio_di_Zeus_Olimpia_April_2006.jpg 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_Hephaisteion_of_Athens_in_2008_2.jpg 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Temple_of_Apollo_Epikourios_at_Bassae,_east_colonnade,_Arcadia,_Greece_(14087181020).jpg 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:O_Partenon_de_Atenas.jpg ]
Ancient Greek Temples spans over a wide landmass of mainland Greece and Hellenic settlements and colonies of Aegean Islands, Italy (Magna Graecia i.e. the coastal areas of Southern Italy ), Sicily and Asia Minor. All the areas influenced by ancient Greek Culture and Civilization were impressed by the Religious Practice of the Hellenic People. The temples were built on very regular form of Greek architecture i.e. the construction being of post and lintel where strong horizontal elements of a building system are held up by strong vertical elements, with large spaces in between them. The defining styles of the Greek Temples are of three basic orders. The Doric Order with recognizable feature of simple circular capitals at the top of columns. It originated in the Doric region of Greece and found throughout Greece, Sicily and Italy. The Ionic Order which was more predominant in Asia Minor and had related examples in Greece. The Ionic columns generally stands on base that separates the column shaft from –stylobate -- or stepped platform with the cap being adorned with ornamental egg-and-dart mouldings. The Cornithian order was the last and most developed of the Greek architectural style and became popular from 1st Century BCE onwards and had wide acceptance in Roman architecture. This style of Greek architecture is marked by thin fluted columns and elaborated capitals, with decoration of acanthus leaves and scrolls. Every Greek Temple was dedicated in honor of individual Greek Gods within the Greek pantheon and often used for safe-keeping of all the offerings consecrated to the Gods. The interior of the Temples contained trophies and large Statue of the Deity concerned. [Image 1. Temple of Apollo, Corinth (540 BCE) ; 2. Temple of Aphaea, Aegina (490 BCE); 3. Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460BCE); 4. Temple of Hephaestos, Athens; (449 - 444 BCE) 5. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassae (450 - 425 BCE); 6. The Pantheon, Athens (447 - 432 BCE)] [Info and Image Credit : List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples, Wikipedia][Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Italy, 2.0 Generic; Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korinth_BW_2017-10-10_10-55-28.jpg
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegina_-_Temple_of_Aphaia_03.jpg
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempio_di_Zeus_Olimpia_April_2006.jpg
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_Hephaisteion_of_Athens_in_2008_2.jpg
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Temple_of_Apollo_Epikourios_at_Bassae,_east_colonnade,_Arcadia,_Greece_(14087181020).jpg
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:O_Partenon_de_Atenas.jpg ]
Ancient Greek Temples spans over a wide landmass of mainland Greece and Hellenic settlements and colonies of Aegean Islands, Italy (Magna Graecia i.e. the coastal areas of Southern Italy ), Sicily and Asia Minor. All the areas influenced by ancient Greek Culture and Civilization were impressed by the Religious Practice of the Hellenic People. The temples were built on very regular form of Greek architecture i.e. the construction being of post and lintel where strong horizontal elements of a building system are held up by strong vertical elements, with large spaces in between them. The defining styles of the Greek Temples are of three basic orders. The Doric Order with recognizable feature of simple circular capitals at the top of columns. It originated in the Doric region of Greece and found throughout Greece, Sicily and Italy. The Ionic Order which was more predominant in Asia Minor and had related examples in Greece. The Ionic columns generally stands on base that separates the column shaft from –stylobate -- or stepped platform with the cap being adorned with ornamental egg-and-dart mouldings. The Cornithian order was the last and most developed of the Greek architectural style and became popular from 1st Century BCE onwards and had wide acceptance in Roman architecture. This style of Greek architecture is marked by thin fluted columns and elaborated capitals, with decoration of acanthus leaves and scrolls. Every Greek Temple was dedicated in honor of individual Greek Gods within the Greek pantheon and often used for safe-keeping of all the offerings consecrated to the Gods. The interior of the Temples contained trophies and large Statue of the Deity concerned. [Image 1. Temple of Apollo, Corinth (540 BCE) ; 2. Temple of Aphaea, Aegina (490 BCE); 3. Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460BCE); 4. Temple of Hephaestos, Athens; (449 - 444 BCE) 5. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, Bassae (450 - 425 BCE); 6. The Pantheon, Athens (447 - 432 BCE)] [Info and Image Credit : List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples, Wikipedia][Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Italy, 2.0 Generic; Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korinth_BW_2017-10-10_10-55-28.jpg
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aegina_-_Temple_of_Aphaia_03.jpg
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempio_di_Zeus_Olimpia_April_2006.jpg
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_Hephaisteion_of_Athens_in_2008_2.jpg
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Temple_of_Apollo_Epikourios_at_Bassae,_east_colonnade,_Arcadia,_Greece_(14087181020).jpg
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:O_Partenon_de_Atenas.jpg ]
Druids were high-class members of ancient Celtic culture. Druids were religious leaders, judicial authorities, judges, traditional custodians, doctors, and political advisers. By custom, the Druids did not leave back any written accounts. Druids are accepted be very literate, but it was believed that their doctrine or practice prevented them from writing down their knowledge in written form. However, their rites and rituals, beliefs and practices are well documented by their contemporaries from other cultures and civilizations such as Romans and Greeks. The most ancient known references to Druids are dated back to the 4th Century BCE. Historically the oldest source of information comes from Commentarii de Bello Gallico (50s or 40s BCE) of Julius Caesar. Information about the Druids was also provided by other Roman writers such as Cicero, Tacitus and Pliny the Elder! After the invasion of Gaul by Rome, the order of the Druids were suppressed by the government of Rome under the first-century AD emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and by second century they have completely disappeared from written records. Graeco-Roman and native Irish sources have come to the same conclusion that Druids have played an important role in pagan Celtic societies. In the accounts of Julius Caesar it is mentioned that they were one of the two most important social groups in the region (along with knights and aristocrats), God-serving, priest-hooding, interpreting ritual-queries and fortune-telling in the communities of Gallia, England and Ireland. Caesar also mentions that they were responsible for organizing the judicial process. According to Caesar, the Druids followed the hierarchy of a single leader and only after the death of the leader would a new leader would be selected either by vote or through means of conflict. The first author to mention that Druid lessons were secret and took place in hideouts like caves and forests was Pomponius Mela. The lore of the Druids consisted of a number of poems memorized by heart, and according to Caesar it could take up to even twenty years to complete the course of indoctrination. The curriculum taught in those days to Druid sophomores is anywhere near hypothesis. The oral literature of the Druids, not even one certified ancient verse, is known to have survived the test of times, even in translated form. All the instructions given out were given out orally. However for general usage the Gauls did have a writing language in which they used Greek letters, as is attested by Caesar. [Info and Image Credit: Druid, Wikipedia] [Images 1) Imaginative illustration of -An Arch Druid in His Judicial Habit -, from The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands by S.R. Meyrick and C.H. Smith (1815) 2) Druids Inciting the Britons to oppose the landing of the Romans – from Cassells History of England, Vol. I – anonymous author and artists 3) The Druidess, oil on canvas, by French painter Alexandre Cabanel (1823–1890)] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_Arch_Druid_in_His_Judicial_Habit.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Druids_Inciting_the_Britons_to_Oppose_the_Landing_of_the_Romans.jpg 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_004.jpg ]
Koliada (also called Koleda) is the word for the Slavic traditional time-period (deriving from pre-Christian times) occurring between Epiphany and Christmas and is associated with the rituals which are part of Slavic Christmas, with pre-Christian cultural elements present. This is celebrated as festivity and holiday and is cherished in Honor of the Sun during Winter Solstice. The Festival is characterized by carols being sung at house by troop of singers who visit the houses of the common folks. The origin of the word according to one conjecture suggests that it is derived from the practice of winter-ritual cycle, that comes from the ancient Roman word – Calendae (First Day of Every Month in Roman Calendar). The current Polish language pronunciation of the word is phonetically nearest to the Old Slavonic pronunciation, as Polish retains the nasal-vowels of the Proto-Slavic language. It is a now more of a festivity of Children and Teenagers who roam from house to house of common folks while singing and showering grains as a gesture of good fortune and receive candies and token money in reciprocation. This activity is called - Kolyadovanye in Russian and - Kolyaduvannya in Ukrainian and similar to ancient East Slavic festivities and other folk holidays like Generous Eve (New Years Eve according to Julian Calendar, 13th January). In current-times, thus the meaning of the word in different Slavic languages like Belarusian, Ukrainian, Czech, Slovakian, Croatian, Kashubian, Polish as well as within Slavs of Balkan have shifted to rambling, singing, making merry in Christmas-eve than what used to be applied for Christmas itself. The kids who visit in groups to sing carols are called – Koledari - and the songs they sing are called the – Kolyadki. Koliada is also celebrated by the Slavic Speakers of Greek Macedonia in Northern Greece, where it is celebrated by setting up of community gathering in village square and lighting up of bonfires. [Info and Image Credit: Koliada, Wikipedia] [Images : 1. Christmas Carols in Little Russia -- by K. Trutovsky ; 2. Russian Christmas postcard. 1910s ;]
[Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trutovsky_Kolyadki.jpg
2. https://bit.ly/3PR6DBD ]
The Kingdom of Khotan was an ancient Saka Buddhist kingdom at the intersection of the Silk Road, which runs along the southern tip of the Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) and had lasted for over 1000 years (~300 BCE - 1006 AD). The Saka people used Eastern Iranian Saka and Indo-Aryan Gandhari Prakrit, which is related to Sanskrit! From the 3rd century C.E., there was also a visible linguistic influence on the Gandhari language spoken in the Khotan royal-court. By the end of 10th CE, Kotanese Saka language had well established itself as the language of the Khotan Royal Court. The name Khotana was written in Kharosthi script while in Brahmi Script the name Hvatäna was written. There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan. These can be found in the description by Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim and in the Tibetan translation of the Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of Ashoka. The Saka people were known as the Sai in ancient Chinese records. These records indicate that they originally inhabited the Ili and Chu River valleys of modern Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. In the Chinese Book of Han, the area was called the -- Land of the Sai --, i.e. the Saka. The Saka crossed the Syr Darya into Bactria around 140 B.C. Later the Saka would also move into Northern India, as well as other Tarim Basin sites like Khotan, Karasahr, Yarkand and Kucha. One suggestion is that the Saka became Hellenized in the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and they or an ethnically mixed Greco-Scythians either migrated to Yarkand and Khotan, or a bit earlier from Taxila in the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Later Khotanese-Saka language documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist literature, have been found in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar). Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in Dunhuang. The economy of Khotan was mostly based on availability of water from oases for irrigation and in the manufacture of traded goods. Such goods included silk, carpet, fine-felts, white and black jade. Khotan was the first place outside of China to begin growing silk. According to Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang, the process of sericulture passed from China to Khotan and there from Khotan to India and then eventually to Europe. The lifestyle of Khotanese population was urban in character and was luxurious with use of silk clothing. Despite of having lack of arable lands, Khotan was fertile and abundantly produced cereals and fruits. As a medium of communication for cultural exchange with foreigners, languages like Sanskrit, Chinese, Classical Tibetan, Prakrit and Apabhramsas were used. According to Chinese pilgrim Faxian, the Kingdom was mostly associated with Mahayana Buddhism and there were some fourteen large and small Monasteries (Viharas) during his time in Khotan. This largely Buddhist kingdom existed for over a thousand years until it was conquered by KaraKhanid Khanate in 1006 AD [Info and Image Credit: Kingdom_of_Khotan, Wikipedia] [Image 1: Painting of Most-Probably Indian Deity Shiva on the Obverse of a Painted Panel; 2. Painting of a Persian Deity and Most-Likely Depicting Legendary Hero Rustam on the reverse of a Painted Panel; (Both Image 1 and 2 is attributed to Khotanese artist Yuchi Yiseng or his father Yuchi Bazhin Tang dynasty - 618-907 AD); 3. Depiction of a Man from Khotan Visiting Chinese Tang Dynasty Court, Wanghuitu, 650 AD; 4. Kingdom of Khotan as of 1001 AD; 5. Head of Buddha from Khotan 3rd - 4th AD] [Images Availed Under Public Domain Work of Art, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International and 3.0 Unported; (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs : 1. https://bit.ly/3pAl8Py 2. https://bit.ly/3ADhURS 3. https://bit.ly/3Cm7mYo 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Khotan.png 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_of_Buddha.jpg ]
Gandhara Art or Greco-Buddhist Art, which flourished in Indian-Subcontinent and expanded into Bactria and Tarim Basin in Central Asia, had its origin with brief arrival of Alexander the Great into India and later under the Mauryan Empire of India, the Indo-Greek Kingdoms and finally during the reign of the Kushan Empire. The Mauryan Empire (322-184 BC), Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250-130 BC), the Indo-Greek Kingdoms (180-10 BC) and the Kushan Empire (30 -267 CE)all played vital roles in the patronage and evolution of the form of art. An artistic realisation of both Hellenistic-Culture and Buddhism or correspondingly Greco-Buddhism, Gandhara Art created a Cultural-Syncretism between Ancient-Greek Art and Buddhism. Though later Gandhara Art was characterized by Buddhist Religious Subjects, early Gandhara Art of work (2nd – 1st BC) represented Greek mythological scenes and stone palettes (round trays found in Bactria nd Gandhara) excavated from archaeological sites suggest so. Gandhara art was embodied with powerful ideals of realism and aesthetic description of Hellenistic art. Gnadhara art is believed to reach its peak between 3rd -5th CE, when most of the current surviving figures and artworls were created. [Images (Left to Right): 1. Couple With Sea-Serpent ; 2. Goddess Nereid riding a Ketos Sea-Monster, 2nd BCE, Sirkap; 3. Apollo and Daphne; 4. Aphrodite at Her Bath; 5. Poseidon with His Attendants; 6. Mythological scene with Athena and Herakles; ] [Info and Image Credit: Greco-Buddhist_art, Wikipedia ; Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported and Public Domain Work of Art (Please Relate to Individual Image URLs for More Usage Property)] [Source Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StonePaletteCoupleWithSeaSerpent.jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NereidAndKetos.JPG 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StonePaletteApolloAndDaphne.jpg 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndoGreekAphrodite.JPG 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndoGreekNeptune.JPG 6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StonePaletteMythologicalScene.jpg ]
The Graeco-Indian Kingdom or the Indo-Greek Kingdom, also historically known in native terminology as the Yavana Kingdom (Yavanarajya) was Greek-Kingdom founded in the Hellenistic-era expanding over different parts of Afghanistan and the then northwest and northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The Empire was an eventual successor state following the invasion of Alexander and Greek Settlements in the region and flourished during the last 2 B.C. Era and had a dynasty of over Thirty Kings ruling during its span. During their rule Indo-Greek symbiosis took place in ideas as well as in languages and symbols. This period also lead the foundation of a cultural syncretism of ancient Greek Art and Buddhism and manifested into the Gandhra Art or Greco-Buddhist Art. The Kingdom was founded with the invasion of India by Graeco-Bactrian king Demetrius (and later Eucratides) from Bactria in 200 BC. There was an eventual division between the Greeks in the Indian Subcontinent with the Graeco-Bactrians being centered on Bactria (now the border between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan), and the Indo-Greeks in the then north-western Indian Subcontinent. Of all the Indo-Greek Kings, Menander (Milinda) was the most notable one. He ruled from his Cpaital City at Sakala in Punjab (modern-day Sialkot). In some way, the term Indo-Greek is often used in generic way with their traditional association with many regional Capital cities of Taxila (in modern day Punjab), Pushkalavati and Sagala. Geographia of Ptolemy and other names obtained related to the later Kings also suggest that a possible Theophila was also a Satrapal or Royal Seat of Power, located to the South of the Indo-Greek sphere of influence. [Images: 1) Seated Buddha in Hellenistic Style, found in Tapa Shotor, Afghanistan, 2nd C.E 2) A Buddhist Monument being Supported by the Titan Atlas, found in Tapa Shotor, Afghanistan 3) The Story of the Trojan Horse being depicted in the Gandhara Art. ] [Info and Image Credit :: Indo-Greek_Kingdom , Greco-Buddhist_art , Wikipedia ; Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 and Public Domain Work (Please Check Individual Image-URLs for All Usage Details) ] [Image URLs : 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tapa_Shotor_seated_Buddha_(Niche_V1).jpg 2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GandharanAtlas.JPG 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndoGreeksTrojanHorse.jpg ]
Scythian art, also known as Steppe Art, suggests the decoration items chiefly, which includes jewelry, weapons, as well as harnesses of horses and items for wagons, tents etc. of the nomadic tribes belonging to the geographical Scythian area spreading over current Central Asia, Eastern Europe and parts of South Asia. The term Scythian is more generic in this case as other tribes of Central Asia mentioned by scholars like Heredotus of Antiquity as well as that of Persian and Chinese sources included the groups like Saka, Massagetae and Sarmatians. In some way Goldsmith-Work from Scythian burials is the largest source of existing relics which can give an idea of the Ancient Greek Art in this field, as Scythians were closely in contact with the Ancient Greeks and very little of the crux of Ancient Greek Goldsmith work has survived today. Also the posh Civilizational influence of Persia and China, as well as cultures of Caucasus mountains had a diverse effect on the art of the Steppe population. In contrast the rigorous styling of animal figures in Scythian art had a long-lasting and wide effect on different Eurasian cultures extending from European Celts to as far as China. The Scythian art is found on wide range of materials including gold, silver, bronze, electrum, iron and even wood, leather and bones. [Images 1. Gold Scythian Pectoral ; 2. Gold Plaque with Panther; 3. Horseman Hunting, with typical Xiongnu Horse Trappings; 4. Bronze Ordos Culture Plaque; ] [Info and Image Credit: Scythian_art , Wikipedia; Images Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic, 3.0 Unported and Free Art License; Source Image-URL 1. https://bit.ly/3w31kbj 2. https://bit.ly/3phjEcK 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steppes_horseman_hunting.jpg 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HorseAttackedByTigerOrdos4th-1stBCE.JPG ]
Sogdia or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranic civilization, being situated between Amu Darya and Syr Darya and was located in modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhastan and Kyrgyzstan. The Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great mentions Sogdia as one of the provinces of Achaemenid Empire. The province was first conquered by Cyrus the Great as a part of Achaemenid Empire. Sogdians also were subjects of Tang Dynasty of China between 7th to early 10th C.E and lived in Imperial China. Merchants and Politicians from Sogdiana travelled as far as Byzantine Empire. Sogdiana prehistorically was part of Bronze Age Civilization and later Indo-European migrants during Iron-Age came and formed the Andronovo-Culture. As part of Achaemenid Empire they were believed to be controlled by the nearby Satrapy or Governorship of Bactria. Up until 400 BC , till the rule of Artaxerxes II, Sogdiana believed to remain a part of Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great captured the Sogdiana Fortress namely The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes 327 BC. Roxana, the daughter of Sogdian Nobleman Oxyartes who was kept safe in the same fortress, was married to Alexander in the same year following a magnificent feast celebration. Roxana would later become the mother of Alexander IV of Macedon. Three Cities in Asia Minor were later named after the Sogdian Wife Apama of Greek General Seleucus I Nicator. Sogdia then became a part of Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom later got conquered first by Sakas and then the Yuezhi. Sasanian Empire of Iran later turned Sogdia as a Satrapy in 260 A.D. [Info and Image Credit : Sogdia , Wikipedia ; Image Availed Under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported ; Image-URL :: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Sogdia.jpg ]
In Ancient Greek faith and myth, Hestia is the virgin goddess of the fireside, the proper ordering of domesticity, the family, the home, and the state. Mythologically, Hestia is the firstborn toddler of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. In Greek the word stands for "hearth" or "fireside". When the gods Apollo and Poseidon have become suitors for her hand she swore to stay a maiden forever, whereupon Zeus, the king of the gods, bestowed upon her the respect of presiding over all sacrifices. It was necessary in Greek custom that as the goddess of sacrificial fire, Hestia ought to get hold of the primary offering at each sacrifice within all households. In the general public domain, the hearth of the prytaneum functioned as her professional sanctuary. The goddess Vesta is her Roman equivalent. Whenever a brand new colony came up, a flame from public fireside of Hestia from the source-city be carried to the new colony. She become additionally related to Hermes, with the two representing together both home lifestyles and outdoor activity of life. In later philosophy Hestia became the fireside-goddess of the universe. Responsibility for the home cult of Hestia typically fell to the first lady of the house but also sometimes to the man. Rituals of Hestia on the hearths of public homes were typically led through holders of civil office. Every private and public fireside appeared as a sanctuary of the goddess and a portion of the sacrifices, to whichever divinity it was offered, belonged to her. Homeric Hymn 24 an 29 is also dedicated to Hestia. (Credit: Hestia - Wikipedia ; Hestia - Britannica) [Image: 1. The Giustiniani Hestia 2. Hestia full of Blessings, Egypt, 6th century tapestry (Dumbarton Oaks Collection)]
Around 7th century BC, the Scythians traveled across the Caucasus from the Northern region of the Black Sea. The First Scythian kingdom was dominated by a form of inter-ethnic dependence based on the conquest of the agricultural population in eastern South Caucasus. They also relied on Predatorial Attacks and Taxation (sometimes as far south as Syrian region), regular tribute (from Media), compliments disguised as gifts (from Egyptian 25th dynasty) and perhaps payment as Military Aid (from Neo-Assyrian Empire). It might be, that the same dynasty ruled in Scythia in much of their history. The legendary founder of the dynasty i.e. Koloksai, was mentioned by Alcman (Ancient Greek choral lyric poet from Sparta) in the seventh century BC. Protothyes and Madyes, Scythian kings in the Near Eastern period of their history, and their successors in the north Pontic steppes belonged to the same dynasty. Herodotus lists five generations of Scythian royalty from the late 7th century BC to the 6th century BC namely :- Spargapeithes, Lycus, Gnurus, Idanthyrsus, Saulius and Prince Anacharsis. After the defeat and expulsion from the Middle East, the Scythians were forced to withdraw but ultimately regained land north of the Black Sea in the first half of the 6th century BC! Later in that century, the Scythians succeeded in controlling and receiving homage to the agricultural tribes of the forest steppe. Consequently their status greatly improved with the advent of the Second Scythian Kingdom, which was founded in the 4th century BC. Herodotus later also mentioned three Scythian rulers contemporaneous with him: Ariapeithes, Scyles, and Octamasadas. (Credit: Scythia, Wikipedia) [Image:: 1. The location of the Black Sea 2. 1994 map of Caucasus region prepared by the U.S. State Department]
The Scythian religion is associated with the myths, rituals and beliefs of Scythian culture including those of Alans, proper Scythians, Sarmatians, Sindi, Massagetae and Saka. The Scythian religion is associated with early polytheism of Proto Indo-Iranian Faith and is believed to have influenced later Slavic, Hungarian, Turkic myths, and some modern East Iranian and Ossetian traditions. Scythian burials were one of the most common and permanent features dating from the Eneolithic to the historic era. Herodotus also described the execution of horses at the burial of a Scythian king. According to Herodotus, the Scythians worshiped the Pantheon of 7 Gods and Goddess (Heptad), equating them with the ancient Greek Gods. He specifically mentions an Eighth God, with the Eighth being worshiped by the Royal Scythians. The structure of the Scythian Pantheon is usually Indo-Iranian and has been divided into three ranks. Tapatī (helenized as Ταβιτί) the goddess of heat, fire and hearth and equated by Herodotus with the Greek goddess Hestia. It was similar to ther name of the Hindu Goddess Tapati and the verb associated with the latter name, तापयति Tapayati ("burning" / "hot"). In the Second Rank were the binary opposites with Papaios being the Sky-father and Api being Earth and Water Mother. The Final Rank composed of "Scythian Hēraklês" whose Scythian name was Dargatavah, and was the forefather of the Scythian kings; the "Scythian Árēs" the God of War; Gaiθāsūra, probably associated with the Sun and equated by Herodotus with the Greek Sun God Apollo; Artimpasa or Argimpasa, the guardian deity of fertility with power over sovereignty and priestly force and identified by Herodotus with Aphrodite Urania! An Eighth Scythian deity mentioned by Herodotus was Thagimasádas, whom he equated with the Greek God Poseidon. (Info-Credit :: Scythian_religion, Wiki)
The Varangians were the names given by the Byzantines to the Viking assailants, conquerors, merchants, and settlers of the time. From the 9-11th CE, the Varangians ruled the Kievan Rus', settled in many parts of modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine, and formed the Byzantine Varangian guards. According to the 12th-century Kievan Primary Chronicle, a group of Varangians known as the Rus under the leadership of Rurik got settled in Novgorod! Prior to Rurik, Rus may have dominated an early suppositional regime called Rus' Khaganate. Rurik's relative Oleg conquered Kiev in 882 and later founded the Kievan Rus', which was ruled by the descendants of Rurik. Participating in trade, piracy and mercenary services, the Volga-Vikings roamed the river systems and portages of Gardariki (Old Norse term used in medieval times for the states of Kievan Rus) and controlled the Volga trade route (between Varangians and Muslims), connecting the Baltic to the Caspian Sea and the Dnieper and Dniester trade route (between Varangians and the Greeks) leading to the Black Sea and Constantinople. These were the most important trade routes of the time, connecting medieval Europe with the Arab Caliphate and Byzantine Empires. Most of the silver coins in the west came from the east via these routes. Attracted by the wealth of Constantinople, the Volga Vikings of Rus' started the Rus'-Byzantine war, some of which brought about useful trade treaties. By early 10 CE, many Varangians worked as Byzantine mercenaries, forming the Elite Varangian Guard (the bodyguards of Byzantine emperors). Eventually majority of them both in Byzantium and Eastern Europe converted from Norse Paganism to Orthodox Christianity, resulting in the Christianization of Kievan Rus' in 988. Consistent with the general decline of the Viking era, the influx of Scandinavian people into Rus' stopped, and the Varangians were gradually assimilated by the East Slavs by the late 11th century. (Info-Credit: Varangians, Wiki)
The Kingdom of Khotan is an ancient Saka Buddhist kingdom at the intersection of the Silk Road, which runs along the southern tip of the Taklimakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) and had lasted for over 1000 years (~300 BCE - 1006 AD). The Saka people used Eastern Iranian Saka and Indo-Aryan Gandhari Prakrit, which is related to Sanskrit! From the 3rd century C.E., there was also a visible linguistic influence on the Gandhari language spoken in the Khotan royal-court. There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan. These can be found in the description by Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim and in the Tibetan translation of the Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of Ashoka. The Saka people were known as the Sai in ancient Chinese records. These records indicate that they originally inhabited the Ili and Chu River valleys of modern Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. In the Chinese Book of Han, the area was called the "land of the Sai", i.e. the Saka. The Saka crossed the Syr Darya into Bactria around 140 B.C. Later the Saka would also move into Northern India, as well as other Tarim Basin sites like Khotan, Karasahr, Yarkand and Kucha. One suggestion is that the Saka became Hellenized in the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and they or an ethnically mixed Greco-Scythians either migrated to Yarkand and Khotan, or a bit earlier from Taxila in the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Later Khotanese-Sakalanguage documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist literature, have been found in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar). Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in Dunhuang. This largely Buddhist kingdom existed for over a thousand years until it was conquered by KaraKhanid Khanate in 1006. (Credit: Kingdom_of_Khotan, Wikipedia)
The Kingdom of Khotan is an ancient Saka Buddhist kingdom at the intersection of the Silk Road, which runs along the southern tip of the Taklimakan Desert in the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) and had lasted for over 1000 years (~300 BCE - 1006 AD). The Saka people used Eastern Iranian Saka and Indo-Aryan Gandhari Prakrit, which is related to Sanskrit! From the 3rd century C.E., there was also a visible linguistic influence on the Gandhari language spoken in the Khotan royal-court. There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan. These can be found in the description by Xuanzang, a Chinese pilgrim and in the Tibetan translation of the Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of Ashoka. The Saka people were known as the Sai in ancient Chinese records. These records indicate that they originally inhabited the Ili and Chu River valleys of modern Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. In the Chinese Book of Han, the area was called the "land of the Sai", i.e. the Saka. The Saka crossed the Syr Darya into Bactria around 140 B.C. Later the Saka would also move into Northern India, as well as other Tarim Basin sites like Khotan, Karasahr, Yarkand and Kucha. One suggestion is that the Saka became Hellenized in the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and they or an ethnically mixed Greco-Scythians either migrated to Yarkand and Khotan, or a bit earlier from Taxila in the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Later Khotanese-Sakalanguage documents, ranging from medical texts to Buddhist literature, have been found in Khotan and Tumshuq (northeast of Kashgar). Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in Dunhuang. This largely Buddhist kingdom existed for over a thousand years until it was conquered by KaraKhanid Khanate in 1006. (Credit: Kingdom_of_Khotan, Wikipedia)
Anacharsis was a Scythian philosopher. He traveled in the early 6th century BC. From his hometown on the north coast of the Black Sea to Athens and left a great impression as a candid and outspoken barbarian as a non-Greek speaker. He very well could have been a forerunner of Cynicism, partly because of His strong but playful Parrhesia. Anacharsis, the son of Scythian chief Gnurus, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenic culture, apparently from the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his hometown to travel for knowledge and arrived at Athens around 589 BC. Anacharsis had cultivated the talent as an outsider to see irrationality in familiar things. For example, Plutarch remarks that he "expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided" . His conversation was curious and candid, and Solon and the Athenians considered him a wise man and a philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'. Anacharsis was the first foreigner (Metic) to receive the privilege of citizenship in Athens. He is considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece by some ancient writers and is said to have been initiated initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who were not fluent in Greek. He recommended moderation in all, saying that the vine has three clusters of grapes: the first, pleasure; the second, drunkenness; the third, disgust. In this way, he became a kind of Athenian emblem 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions' . In 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece about a young Scythian descended from Anacharsis. It influenced the growth of French philhellenism at the time. It later evoked European sympathy for the Greek Struggle for Independence and other events in 19th century. (Credit: Anacharsis , Wiki)
Anacharsis was a Scythian philosopher. He traveled in the early 6th century BC. From his hometown on the north coast of the Black Sea to Athens and left a great impression as a candid and outspoken barbarian as a non-Greek speaker. He very well could have been a forerunner of Cynicism, partly because of His strong but playful Parrhesia. Anacharsis, the son of Scythian chief Gnurus, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenic culture, apparently from the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his hometown to travel for knowledge and arrived at Athens around 589 BC. Anacharsis had cultivated the talent as an outsider to see irrationality in familiar things. For example, Plutarch remarks that he "expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided" . His conversation was curious and candid, and Solon and the Athenians considered him a wise man and a philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'. Anacharsis was the first foreigner (Metic) to receive the privilege of citizenship in Athens. He is considered one of the Seven Sages of Greece by some ancient writers and is said to have been initiated initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who were not fluent in Greek. He recommended moderation in all, saying that the vine has three clusters of grapes: the first, pleasure; the second, drunkenness; the third, disgust. In this way, he became a kind of Athenian emblem 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions' . In 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece about a young Scythian descended from Anacharsis. It influenced the growth of French philhellenism at the time. It later evoked European sympathy for the Greek Struggle for Independence and other events in 19th century. (Credit: Anacharsis , Wiki)
Maues (Moga on Taxila's copperplate) was the first Indo-Scythian king to reign between 98/85 to 60/57 BC. The Sakas from Sakastan defeated and killed the King Phraates II of Parthian Empire in 126 B.C. By the end of the reign of Mithridates II of Parthia, Indo-Scythians had already established themselves in the Indus around 88 B.C. The Sakas and Pahlavas became closely associated during the Saka migration. Maues is the first recorded ruler of the Sakas in the Indus. He is first mentioned in the Moga inscription. His coins contain various religious symbols such as the bull of Shiva, indicating wide religious tolerance. Also, Maues struck some coins incorporating Buddhist symbolism, such as the lion, symbol of Buddhism since the time of the Mauryan king Ashoka. His Coins also depicted Greek-God Zeus (with Scepter) and Goddess Nike (Holding Wreath). Maues`s name primarily is attested from his coins appearing under the Gandhari language (A Prakrit Language) and Ancient-Greek , both of which are variants of the same Scythian-Saka language name "Mava", meaning "tiger" and "hero". Coins in "Kharoshthi" language mentions Him as "Rajatirajasa mahatasa Moasa" i.e. "Great king of kings, Maues". (Info-Credit: Maues, Wikipedia) [Image: 1. Maues riding in armour 2. Coin of Maues depicting Shree-Krishna's brother Balarama, 1st century BCE ]
Ariana was described as a vast stretch of land between Central Asia and Indus, a common geographical term used by ancient Greek and Roman writers for the eastern Achaemenid Empire, the easternmost point of Iran and northwestern India. Ariana is the Latin word for ancient Greek and is derived from the ancient Persian word Aryanem (Ariana). This meant --`"the Land of the Aryans", similar to the usage of the word Āryāvarta. The Greek word Arianē is derived from the term found in Iranian Avestan --Airiiana (specifically, Airyanem Vaejah, the name of the Iranian homeland). The modern name Iran represents a different form of the ancient name Ariana, which is derived from Airyanem Vaejah. The Greeks also called Haroyum/Haraiva (Herat) as 'Aria', which is one of the many provinces found in Ariana. The names Ariana and Aria and many other ancient titles, of which Aria is a component element, are connected with the Indo-Iranian word "Ariya", a self-designation of the people of Ancient India and Iran, meaning 'noble', 'excellent' and 'honourable'. According to the definition of Eratosthenes, the Ariana border was defined by the Indus to the east, the sea to the south, , a line from Carmania to the Caspian Gates (apparently referring to the pass near the southeastern edge of the Caspian Sea) in the west, and the so-called Taurus Mountains in the north. Thus the provinces of Carmania, Gedrosia, Drangiana, Arachosia, Aria, the Paropamisadae; also Bactria belonged to Ariana and was called "the ornament of Ariana as a whole" by Apollodorus of Artemita. (Info-Credit: Ariana, Wiki) [image-Credit: The Atlas of Ancient and Classical Geography by Samuel Butler and Ernest Rhys, showing Ariana in the east (yellow) based on Eratosthenes descriptions , Wikipedia]
Medusa, the most famous monster figures known in Greek mythology as the Gorgon. She was usually portrayed as a winged female creature having a head of hair consisting of snakes. Unlike the Gorgon, she was sometimes described as very beautiful! Medusa was the only Gorgon who was mortal. Therefore, her killer Perseus was able to kill her by beheading her head. The blood spewing from her neck gave birth to Poseidon's two sons, Chrysaor and Pegasus! (Artist: Sanjin Halimic)
Children of the Sun ::-- ‘Om Suryaye Namaha‘ -- is the mantra dedicated to the Sun God – Surya (Surya-deva) in Hindu Religion. The worship of Sun as one of the most divine symbol of power was quite naturally the most popular commonality among the Indo-European races. Surya is glorified in the ancient Indian Vedas as an all-seeing god who observes both good and evil acts. It drives away not only darkness, but also bad dreams and illnesses. Sun heroes and sun kings also occupy a central position in Indian mythology, where Vivasvant, the father of Yama, corresponds to the Iranian Vivahvant, the father of Yima. According to the Vedas, he is one of 33 sons of Goddess Aditi and is also known as Aditya. Surya, the sun, is a symbol of immeasurable light and wisdom. Solar dynasty or the Ikshvaku dynasty, also known as Sūryavaṃśa ("Solar dynasty" or "Descendants of the Sun") is a legendary Indian princely dynasty and comprises one of the main lineages of the Kshatriya Varna in India, founded by the legendary king Ikshvaku. According to Buddhist texts and tradition, even Gautama Buddha descended from this dynasty. The Buddhist text, Buddhavamsa and Mahavamsa (II, 1–24) traces the origin of the Shakyas to king Okkaka (Pali equivalent to Sanskrit Ikshvaku) and gives their genealogy from Mahasammata, an ancestor of Okkaka. Similarly in medieval Iran, Sun festivals were celebrated as a continuous tradition from ancient times. The characteristics of Indo-European sun worship are similar and has Solar-Deity drawn generally by four white horses on a carriage and similarly repeated in Indo-Iranian, Greek-Roman, and Scandinavian myths! Later in Roman history, the worship of the sun became more important and eventually became “Solar Monotheism”. The feast of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun) was cherished with much celebrations and later got appropriated by other religious traditions. (Credit: Solar_dynasty, Wiki)(Credit: sun-worship , Britannica)
The historical Eucratideia (Historical Alexandria on the Oxus River, Later Renamed Arukratiya or Eucratidia) was one of the primary cities and an enigma of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and of the Indo-Greek kings when they ruled both in Bactria and northwestern India, from the time of Demetrius to the time of Eucratides (170–145 BC). Alexander the Great is believed to have founded the city in around 327 BC. The city is located in Takhar Province, northern Afghanistan. It is on the lower of two major sets of routes (lowland and highland) which connect Western Asia to the Khyber Pass which gives road access to South Asia. Eucratideia was one of the focal points of Hellenism in the East, combined in both Greek and Persian style, the magnificent Royal Palace was built in the Achaemenid style while clear Greek influence is also noticeable, with the large amphitheater and several Hellenic temples also found. For nearly two centuries, Eucratideia remained the principal city of Bactria, serving as the capital of the Bactrian kingdom, until its annihilation by nomadic invaders around 145 BC about the time of death of Eukratides the Great. Archaeological excavations have revealed 1. two-miles long ramparts, circling the city. 2. A Classical theater, 84 meters in diameter with 35 rows of seats, that could sit 4,000-6,000 people, equipped with three loges for the rulers of the city. 3. A huge palace in Greco-Bactrian architecture, somehow reminiscent of formal Persian palatial architecture. 4. A gymnasium (100 × 100m), one of the largest of Antiquity. A dedication in Greek to Hermes and Herakles was found engraved on one of the pillars. The dedication was made by two men with Greek names (Triballos & Strato, son of Strato). 5. Various temples around the city. The largest temple in the city appeared to contain a monumental statue of Zeus sitting, but a Zoroastrian model (rather than open columnar structure of the Greek temple, it was firmly closed.) [Credit: Ai-Khanoum, Wiki]
The Scythian War strategy adopted a cutting-edge recurve bows and a hit-and-run strategy against fixed formations of infantry. From a swift horse, the Scythian warrior was able to unleash a cloud of deadly arrows. Known for his innovative use of scale armor, he also engaged in hand-to-hand combat with shields and swords. It was certainly impressive that the nomadic Scythians who lived between the 7th and 3rd century BCE dominated the grasslands of Central Asia. For personal protection, the Scythians not only wore one-piece greaves to protect their shins, but also specialized scale armors! Onto soft leather corselets, they attached iron plates in overlapping fish-scale fashion using animal tendons. Over time, Scythian warfare also utilized full metal helmets of the Kuban and Corinthian types. As part of their offensive array, battle axes, maces, lances, and spears are found among their grave goods. Some of the lances discovered are around 3 meters (10 ft) in length, and the spears are 1.8 meters (6 ft). However, the Scythian warrior`s most effective weapon was the bow. Made of laminated wood, horns, tendons and glue, it represents the pinnacle of bow technology, copied by subsequent races such as Parthian, Mongols and Turks. These bows are designed with a backward-curved profile to maximize arrow acceleration and long-range accuracy. It was short, so it was perfect for riding a horse and shooting an arrow! Behind the complex Scythian-bow, there was a painstaking process that took up to two years to assemble, cure and dry the same and was a valuable traded prize for selected allies like Greeks. (Info + Image Credit: Scythian_Warfare, worldhistory . org)
The Scythian War strategy adopted a cutting-edge recurve bows and a hit-and-run strategy against fixed formations of infantry. From a swift horse, the Scythian warrior was able to unleash a cloud of deadly arrows. Known for his innovative use of scale armor, he also engaged in hand-to-hand combat with shields and swords. It was certainly impressive that the nomadic Scythians who lived between the 7th and 3rd century BCE dominated the grasslands of Central Asia. For personal protection, the Scythians not only wore one-piece greaves to protect their shins, but also specialized scale armors! Onto soft leather corselets, they attached iron plates in overlapping fish-scale fashion using animal tendons. Over time, Scythian warfare also utilized full metal helmets of the Kuban and Corinthian types. As part of their offensive array, battle axes, maces, lances, and spears are found among their grave goods. Some of the lances discovered are around 3 meters (10 ft) in length, and the spears are 1.8 meters (6 ft). However, the Scythian warrior`s most effective weapon was the bow. Made of laminated wood, horns, tendons and glue, it represents the pinnacle of bow technology, copied by subsequent races such as Parthian, Mongols and Turks. These bows are designed with a backward-curved profile to maximize arrow acceleration and long-range accuracy. It was short, so it was perfect for riding a horse and shooting an arrow! Behind the complex Scythian-bow, there was a painstaking process that took up to two years to assemble, cure and dry the same and was a valuable traded prize for selected allies like Greeks. (Info + Image Credit: Scythian_Warfare, worldhistory . org)
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